Design Life-Cycle

 Compostable Produce Bags

Genevie Hong

DES 40A

Professor Cogdell

Compostable Produce Bags- Raw Materials

Compostable produce bags, a light translucent green, with a stretchy, slightly rubbery feel, have been replacing regular old, plastic produce bags throughout supermarkets in the United States in recent years. As our society is shifting towards sustainable practices and becoming more conscious about climate change and the environment, compostable produce bags have been the latest trending solution to preventing plastic bag waste. Due to its versatility and biodegradability, compostable produce bags are a viable alternative to plastic bags and this is made possible by its raw materials. Made from organic materials that derived from the Earth, compostable produce bags can decompose and return back to the Earth. This circular economy of raw materials allows the product to be continuously renewed and reused. The life cycle of compostable produce bags follows a cradle-to-cradle design philosophy in which the product imitates the processes of nature, by being endlessly self-sustaining. To go in depth of the life cycle which consists of six major steps: 1) Raw material acquisition 2) Manufacturing, Processing, and Formulation 3) Transportation and Distribution 4) Use, Reuse, Maintenance 5) Recycling 6) Waste Management. This paper assesses the role of varying raw materials in each step of the life cycle process. 

 Raw Material Acquisition

Due to its alignment with the environmental goals of preventing pollution, preserving biodiversity, and reducing greenhouse gas emissions, the raw materials in compostable produce bags are organic, decomposable, and renewable. Compostable produce bags are beneficial because of their least substantial impact on the environment when acquiring raw materials. Understanding the human impact and degradation on the environment, has brought more awareness to issues on climate change. On average about 500 billion to 5 trillion plastic bags are used each year contributing to waste by filling up landfills and polluting oceans. This breakthrough with compostable produce bags will help eliminate such issues and benefit people and the environment by reducing waste. The raw materials used for compostable produce bags consist primarily of natural polymers and plant-based materials which are meant to break down naturally and safely in composting environments. Some common raw materials include starch blends, cellulose, bagasse, Polylactic Acid (PLA), Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA). Starch blends from common crops like corn, potatoes, sugarcane, wheat, cassava, and tapioca are often combined with other polymers to improve the strength and flexibility of the produce bags. These crops are harvested, fermented, and then transformed into Polylactic Acid (PLA), a bioplastic that imitates the appearance of and functionality plastic, that can fully decompose. When these crops are harvested from farms, they do not necessarily have to be the whole crop itself, but rather its excessive parts or scraps can be used. Cellulose, another primary material, is derived from the cell walls of wood pulp or plant fibers and bagasse is a byproduct of sugarcane processing. All these raw materials are renewable, yet can break down naturally and safely in composting environments. Due to the relative abundance of crops, these primary raw materials for starch blends, cellulose, and baggase, are easily acquired. Especially,“At the current rate of production, the need for corn does not compete with the food supply.” (Farrin, 2005). 

Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA), another raw material in compostable produce bags, and made naturally from bacteria, is acquired or rather produced by the microbial fermentation of carbon rich feedstocks. Carbon rich feedstocks are leftover crops such as the leftover parts of the corn after harvest or leftover parts from fruits and vegetables after being processed. 

Manufacturing and Production

For the manufacturing and production process of transforming raw materials into plastic bags, a series of chemical and mechanical processes occurs. Primary raw materials are transformed into secondary raw materials. The Natural polymers are synthesized using chemical processes. Fossil fuels are one raw material by product in the production of compostable produce bags since hard coal is burned using starch-polyester production. When using corn, cassava, or sugarcane to be blended into starch and produced into plastic, the primary raw material lactic acid is extracted. Polylactic acid which is the polymerization of lactic acid found in plant crops “[as well as] …all animals and microorganisms and does not produce toxic byproducts when it biodegrades,” (Farrin, 2005).  Through purification processes, the starches in the corn and other plants are broken down into glucose through hydrolysis. In the process of hydrolysis, another  raw material, water, is introduced and is used to break down the chemical bonds of glucose. Then, the glucose is fermented and the carbons in the sugar are removed, and finally plastic is created from the carbons through refining. Similarly, with the raw materials, cellulose and Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) excess carbon sources can be extracted to form bioplastic. Refining is made possible through a heating process, and the carbons are converted into monomers into ethylene and propylene. In the polymerization reactor, they use a catalyst to form long polymer chains and form biodegradable plastic resin pellets. The production process includes extrusion, molding, and printing. In an extruder machine, a system made of barrels and cylinders, the pellets are heated, melted, and mixed to form a molten mass. After this process, is film extrusion in which the molten plastic is extruded through a flat die resulting in a continuous tube of bioplastic film. To let it cool, the raw materials, air and water, are utilized to solidify the plastic. Finally, passing through a series of rollers and folders the plastic film is pressed and folded into a continuously spinning tube with overlapping edges. To seal the bottom of the bag, heat is applied to seal the edges together. Then, to incorporate brand logos or labels that indicate the compostable nature of the bags and certifications (e.g., ASTM D6400, EN 13432)., a printing process called Flexographic printing, the raw material, rubber is used to transfer ink on the film. Lastly, with the final product of bag from the culmination of raw materials, “the continuous tube of plastic film is fed into a cutting and sealing section.” in which “sharp blades or rotary cutters precisely cut the tube into individual bag lengths, while simultaneously sealing the sides to create the bag shape,” (Jiang, 2023).  For packaging, the bags may be packaged in cardboard boxes, or put into rolls or stacks. Cardboard is derived from paper which are sourced from trees. 

Transportation and Distribution 

After the processing of raw and secondary materials into the final product of compostable produce bags, the product is transported from its manufacturing location to its customers. The bags are packed in bulk for wholesale distribution or in smaller retail-ready packages.

The packaged bags are distributed to wholesalers and distributors who manage large inventories.

These wholesalers may supply various sectors including grocery stores, farmers' markets, and online retailers. The raw material in this step of the life cycle process for transportation and distribution is fossil fuels. Fuel sources are harvested from underground and are used in fuel engines for transport vehicles like trucks, planes, and ships.  Because compostable bags are heavier and thicker than regular bags, it “...requires more trucks consuming more fossil-fuel, emitting more exhaust pollution, and occupying more road space,”  (Edwards, Parker 2012).

Use, Reuse, Maintenance

Produce bags which are typically thin, are designed to carry lightweight groceries, fruits,  and vegetables. Compostable produce bags made with the materials PLA and PHA are generally not durable and are bound to break apart after multiple uses. Depending on which country or state, it must meet the standard for compostability and will have a specific symbol. In the United States, compostable produce bags are certified compostable according to the US Standard ASTM D6400. Under excessive stretching, exposure to moisture, or physical stress, it is easier to break. Similarly, starch blend and cellulose bags are less durable and are deliberately meant to be used once. Additionally, being exposed to heat, sunlight, and moisture leads to faster degradation since these are composing factors. To maintain the reuse potential of compostable bags, is to use higher-quality compostable bags designed to be thicker and made from more durable materials. Compostable produce bags can also be reused to line the kitchen composting bin to hold food scraps. 

Recycling 

On that note, compostable produce bags are not recyclable due to its composting nature. Since the bag is able to completely break down under decomposition and return back to its cradle, this product cannot be recycled. This is due to the raw materials being completely natural, nontoxic,, and renewable through natural processes as it returns to the soil. Since there is not any real plastic, but rather “imitation” plastic in compostable produce bags, recycling does not need to take place. Compostable bags disposed of in composting facilities with optimal conditions of: heat, moisture, and microbial activity which allows for maximum breakdown of bags. 

Within a few months in the right composting environment, compostable bags can decompose in CO2, water, and biomass. However, the time varies on the specific material. 

Waste Management 

After distribution and its long and reliable usage, compostable bags are then disposed of and reach the end of their life cycle only to be continued shortly again. Compostable produce bags if used to hold food scraps and other composting material should be tossed in the green food and garden organics (FOGO) bin where it is sent to a composting facility. They should never be tossed in the general waste bin since it will end up in the landfill and that is not a suitable environment for composting. There is a misconception that compostable bags can just be broken down into soil. Compostable bags do not just break down in the soil if the proper conditions are not met. Conditions such as heat, moisture, and airflow which can be engineered in a composting facility provide the most effective conditions for microorganisms to break down the bags through anaerobic decomposition. In anaerobic decomposition, a byproduct of this would be biogas. The facility is monitored for ideal composting conditions. The raw materials water to maintain moisture, porosity, and oxygen and carbon to nitrogen ratio to maintain a high temperature allows microbes to flourish in extreme heat and decompose. It takes about 10-45  days for compostable bags to fully decompose (BioBag 2024). Furthermore, as compostable bags end in the life cycle process, little to no waste is produced due to its decomposition. 

Overall, as compostable bags go through the journey of its life cycle, the raw materials used are specifically known for its renewability and ability to break into organic material, thus helping to reduce its carbon footprint and reliance on fossil fuels, and contributing to society as a practical and sustainable product.

Bibliography 

Bag, Bio. “USA & International Certifications for Compostables.” BioBag, www.biobagusa.com/about-biobag/certifications/. Accessed 5 June 2024. 

Edwards, Chris, and Gary Parker. "A life cycle assessment of oxo-biodegradable, compostable and conventional bags." Interetek Expert Services Report on behalf of Symphony Environmental Ltd. 46pp (2012).

Farrin, Jennifer. "Biodegradable plastics from natural resources." Institute of Technology, Rochester 432 (2005).

Jiang, Vivi. “How to Produce Biodegradable Garbage Bags Step by Step.” LinkedIn, 4 July 2023, www.linkedin.com/pulse/how-produce-biodegradable-garbage-bags-step-vivi-jiang/. 

Li, Zibiao, et al. “Polyhydroxyalkanoates: Opening Doors for a Sustainable Future.” Nature News, Nature Publishing Group, 22 Apr. 2016, www.nature.com/articles/am201648. 

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Laila Tehrani

DES 40A

Professor Cogdell

Compostable Produce Bags- Energy

Imagine an individual who needs an assortment of goods from the grocery store to make a salad. They must grab cucumbers, tomatoes, onions, and bell peppers from the produce section and place them into their cart. Will the customer set the produce directly on the metal bars in the cart, bring their produce bags from home, or use the green compostable produce bags found in each produce section aisle? One option that many resort to is the small, green, compostable produce bag that most grocery stores carry. With no cost for customers, there is a natural response to grab these bags for each produce item purchased. At the same time, only little thought goes into the environmental impact inflicted when these compostable produce bags are made and used by consumers. With society becoming more environmentally conscious, the amount of plastic and the abundance of emissions inputted to produce bags is recognizable. As time progresses, finding alternatives that promote environmental sustainability is essential. Holding the name and societal image of sustainability, it is crucial to consider if the embodied energy when creating compostable produce bags remains at that standard, especially when researching the life cycle analysis and aspects of production such as sourcing, manufacturing, distribution, and areas such as maintenance, recycle, and waste management all of which show that compostable produce bags may not prove their public image.

The raw materials used to create compostable produce bags have advanced, promoting environmental protection and sustainability; however, the embodied energy used to extract these raw materials shows an increase in energy usage for raw material extraction. The raw materials of compostable produce bags include corn, sugarcane, potato starch, cellulose, cassava starch, polylactic acid (PLA), and polyhydroxyalkanoates. Corn, as a raw material, is extracted through combined machinery that cuts grain and is powered by gasoline or diesel, contributing to global air pollution. Sugarcane is typically sourced by hand, with a machete that chops the cane, ultimately decreasing the dependency on fossil fuels since it is human-powered. In some situations, the sugarcane is burned before harvesting to eliminate pests or trash, which could also contribute to air pollution. In addition, potato starch has an "excellent flexible film formation" (Mitch 1), which is a valuable property to have, especially as an input to create a durable material. On a larger scale, potato starch comes from potatoes that go through machinery in potato starch plants that undergo tasks such as washing, separation, starch dehydrating, and drying. These various tasks occurring in the factory utilize a vast amount of water for cleaning, while machinery uses a significant amount of mechanical energy. Cellulose, another input for compostable produce bags, is extracted through Kraft Pulping, a chemical energy extraction which, according to the Environmental Protection Agency, "involves the digesting of wood chips at elevated temperature and pressure in "white liquor," which is a water solution of sodium sulfide and sodium hydroxide" (Environmental Protection Agency, 1). Like potato starch, cassava starch has a method of extraction that follows suit with the order of potato starch, also holding the same environmental degradation regarding water usage and carbon emissions from machinery. To create the bioplastic material, polylactic acid, petroleum is polymerized through harsh chemical energy. Compared to traditional plastics, which use abundant fossil fuels, the creation of polylactic acid uses roughly sixty percent less fossil fuels to create polylactic acid, emitting fewer greenhouse gases and improving sustainability. Lastly, polyhydroxyalkanoate has become the next best alternative for eliminating issues with plastic and fossil fuels, where all stages of their life cycle are considered green. A small amount of natural energy is needed to create polyhydroxyalkanoates, which differs from the chemical energy needed for polylactic acid. Polyhydroxyalkanoates are an energy source for themselves and go through fermentation processes for more industrial uses (Mukherjee and Koller 9). As compostable produce bags use more organic materials, compared to plastics and chemicals used in the past, there is an increase in the amount of water and land used for general upkeep, which in turn uses more energy.  Once all the raw materials are extracted with their specific amounts of embodied energy, more energy is used to get them to the factories. Since many raw materials are not made in labs, there is more material to transport, which ultimately adds to the air pollution and carbon emissions affecting our planet. 

Next, for product manufacturing and processing, it is crucial to consider the energy inputs for combining the raw materials in factories and whether the time duration for production and power usage is more sustainable than traditional produce bags. An article comparing conventional, oxo-biodegradable, and compostable produce bags (bio-based bags) shows that the compostable produce bags used the most energy for production. The compostable produce bags used 0.0111 kWh, while conventional and oxo-biodegradable bags used 0.0062 kWh. Although the numbers are close in value, the difference will become vast when expanded to a larger production scale, displaying the disparity between energy usage for each bag. All three bags use grid electricity as their energy source for production, where coal and natural gas are the primary sources fueling the electricity. In factories, the material is created through chemical reactions that travel through film-blowing machines powered by the electricity grids. As natural materials are used as inputs, a thin material is developed when combined in the factory. Typically, using plastics creates a more durable and strong material that helps with functionality. With the purpose of the compostable bag being to hold and protect produce, the bag itself needs to withstand a certain weight and durability. With this thin material, more of it needs to be developed to reach functionality, explaining the difference in grid electricity usage for compostable produce bags. According to Intertek Expert Services in "A Life Cycle Assessment of Oxo-biodegradable, Compostable, and Conventional Bags," the authors state, "Many previous studies have found that existing bio-based bags are heavier than their conventional alternative…a bio-based bag weighs 30% more than a conventional or oxo-biodegradable bag when providing the same volume and carrying capacity (in reality bio-based bags may need to weigh over 30% more to achieve equivalent strength)" (Edwards and Parker 16). Once the material travels through factory belts, it is cut, sorted, and prepared for distribution. Although the raw materials are individually more sustainable, this change in the production process causes an increase in energy consumption during production.

When considering distribution and transportation, compostable produce bags fall short of their public image of sustainability. As mentioned, using natural raw materials requires transportation from extraction to factories. After the material is produced within the factory, another stage of distribution and transportation occurs. Due to the thicker ‘sustainable’ material, the distribution and transportation process alters to achieve weight and durability for compostable produce bags. “The transportation of bio-based bags requires more trucks, consuming more fossil-fuel, emitting more exhaust pollution, and occupying more road space. More warehousing space is also required” (Edwards and Parker 22). Due to an increase in thickness, there is a decrease in the amount of bags per box, meaning that more boxes are needed. When more boxes are needed, this shows that more transportation will be requested because more room will be needed for all of the boxes. Between the energy that goes into making the packaging material and the energy for all distribution stages, there is an increase in fossil fuels and air pollution, inflicting harm on the planet and essentially taking away the purpose of compostable produce bags.

To promote environmental sustainability, use, reuse, and maintenance are crucial to limiting degradation. Rather than entering a cycle of hyper-consumerism, individuals must adopt reusing as a more conscious practice. Embodied energy for use, reuse, and maintenance of compostable produce bags is subjective to the individual, as their own habits will help them with sustainability practices. Compostable produce bags can be re-used at the discretion of the consumer. Individuals can reuse their little green bags at the grocery store rather than using new ones each time, as customers can bring their own bags into grocery stores. The durability of compostable produce bags allows them to be reused for a limited time. It can be easy to make a hole in the bag with rough action or if met with a sharp object. Only human energy goes into the use, reuse, and maintenance of compostable produce bags as it is up to the consumer and their actions with what they do with it. Individuals' carbon footprint would be improved if they reuse their bags rather than contributing to waste.

In addition, recycling is a significant factor in the life cycle analysis that can assist with using less fossil fuels to create new items. Typically, items can be recycled, taken back to factories, and formulated into a new material, saving various steps of the production cycle for what is being created. On the contrary, compostable produce bags can not be recycled because, over time, the inputted materials of the produce bag will turn into compost. There is no embodied energy that is inputted into recycling compostable produce bags since their purpose is to compost. The embodied energy was inputted into the raw materials to create this composting ability.

Lastly, composting as an aspect of waste management is critical for compostable produce bags to follow their standard. With the produce bags being compostable, these materials are expected to decompose in the correct environment and settings. The bags need to be in specific facilities where temperature, organic matter, and oxygen are regulated to ensure the materials can decompose properly. Fossil fuels are emitted when transporting the waste to facilities unless individuals have their own composting facilities in their homes. When the compostable produce bags are in the process of decomposition, thermal energy is emitted due to a microbial breakdown of material (Science Buddies 2). The thermal energy, heat, emitted from the decomposition can be extracted and used to warm houses and greenhouses, displaying the idea of renewal energy. In many composting facilities, dirt can be created, which can be reused on farms to help other life cycles flourish.

To conclude, when completing holistic research on embodied energy in compostable produce bags, it remains debatable whether they are considered sustainable. Although the raw materials in the bag are more natural, the processing and extraction emit a vast amount of fossil fuels, contributing to global warming and air pollution. Some of the new raw materials show their environmental benefit and should continue to be used. Manufacturing uses energy grids to create the material from natural raw materials but uses more than traditional bags. Distribution and transportation increase with compostable produce bags which contributes to emitting more fossil fuels and air pollution. Use, reuse, and maintenance are solely up to the discretion of the consumer of what they want to do with the bag they brought home from the store. Compostable produce bags can not be recycled so they do not have any embodied energy. Lastly, waste management, or composting, emits thermal energy that can also be used up to the discretion of the individual, whether it is used for heat or dirt. Overall, compostable produce bags have various qualities that set them apart from traditional produce bags. It is a question of the energy usage of the life cycle analysis calculates to be more, less, or equal, but the practices for compostable produce bags are putting our society forward in a new direction.

Bibliography

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Natalie Ung

Genevive Hong, Laila Tehrani

DES 40A A02

Professor Cogdell

Compostable Produce Bags - Waste

In a perfect world, the bags we use to carry fruits and vegetables from the grocery store would break down naturally and enrich the soil the same way the produce inside does, rather than ending up in the trash—and thankfully, this is now becoming a reality. Today’s new “green” age has prompted many businesses, from grocery stores to restaurants to coffee shops, to move towards providing supplies made from compostable material. Given their name, compostable produce bags are advertised to uphold sustainability initiatives; however, in the material acquisition and manufacturing, transportation/distribution, use/reuse/maintenance, recycling, and disposal of each bag, there are many areas in which compostable produce bags fall just short. The waste from the materials and energy needed to create compostable produce bags across the six stages—material acquisition and manufacturing, transportation and distribution, use, reuse and maintenance, recycling, and disposal—fails to account for environmental integrity at every step, hampering the product's overall sustainability.
While compostable produce bags are typically composed of natural, biodegradable materials, acquiring these resources can be an exceptionally wasteful process and may eventually lead to severe environmental detriments. Examples of these materials include corn, sugarcane, potato starch, cellulose, cassava starch, and polylactic acid (PLA). Corn, like many other harvested materials,  “can result in substantial environmental degradation, including soil erosion, nutrient runoff,” and water pollution, causing a great amount of natural resources to be wasted (Neira et al.). The mass production of crops not only creates waterborne waste due to the contamination from chemical farming agents such as pesticides and fertilizers, but also can leave soil unusable for extended periods of time. Acquiring cellulose and cassava starch, other commonly used materials in compostable produce bags, can also detriment the environment further, often resulting in deforestation and habitat loss. Finally, these raw materials also produce a great deal of agricultural waste, as not all parts of each plant are used and the byproducts are often disposed of.
Now that we have accounted for the direct waste from the ground up, we must examine the airborne wastes that result from harvesting. Growing any type of crop requires a great deal of machinery for care and harvesting, leading to “significant environmental impacts, including high water usage and the emission of greenhouse gasses” (Markowicz et al). The farming industry relies on carbon fuels to power its engines, as these energy sources are more durable and accessible in rural areas; however, they contribute to airborne pollution by releasing greenhouse gasses. While the material acquisition process presents several sustainability challenges, the manufacturing stage further complicates the environmental footprint of compostable produce bags.
The manufacturing and production process of compostable produce bags produce many types of waste, undermining the “greater” environmental benefits of these bags. Compostable produce bags are made from Polylactic acid (PLA), a bio-based type of plastic derived from renewable material, but despite being made from natural resources, "the production of PLA involves energy-intensive processes, which can result in a higher carbon footprint compared to conventional plastics if not managed properly" (Intertek). Polylactic acid is generally created by fermenting raw materials into lactic acid with the aid of chemicals. However, there are two main types of waste created from this breakdown process: chemical and agricultural, as "chemical inputs…can pose environmental hazards, potentially impacting water quality and biodiversity" and much of the raw material is discarded as organic waste. (Park). Furthermore, the factories and machinery involved in production consume large amounts of electricity and water yielding even more waste and causing even more environmental harms (Hull & Newell). Not all factories derive their electricity from unrenewable sources, as some use water for parts of the process, but those that do use primarily fossil fuels increase our carbon footprint and create solid, airborne, and even waterborne waste. Additionally, if the water used in manufacturing gets cross contaminated by any sort of chemical matter/pollutant, that turns into waterborne waste as well. Manufacturing & Production create significant environmental issues, but the transportation and distribution of compostable produce bags worsens the impact even further. 

The transportation and distribution of compostable bags utilizes large amounts of non-renewable fuels, increasing the product’s carbon footprint. Given that these bags are often transported over long distances, most vehicles are powered by gasoline and diesel which create carbon emissions. This is especially true when the bags are shipped nationwide: "Fossil fuel consumption in the transportation phase remains a critical issue for the sustainability of compostable products" (Neira et al.).  Furthermore, it has been found that compostable produce bags are heavier and require more fuel, leading to higher emissions of greenhouse gasses and airborne waste. Despite all these challenges with sustainability in production, it is possible for consumers to improve sustainability of compostable produce bags. 

The sustainability of the use, reuse, and maintenance of compostable produce bags depends solely on the consumer. Proper use, reuse, and maintenance can prolong the life of these bags, ultimately minimizing waste: "The effectiveness of compostable bags in reducing waste is heavily dependent on consumer practices and proper maintenance" (Ugulu et al.). Improper consumer behavior can generate various types of waste. Compostable produce bags are unique in that they may not be recycled, and their reuse life is very short due to their low durability. In some cases, users may create chemical and waterborne waste if they use harsh cleaning agents to maintain these bags, as the chemical runoff may pollute water sources (Georget et al.). Disposing compostable bags before they break down also creates unnecessary solid waste, undermining their potential environmental benefits (Hull and Newell). Improper disposal can lead to the release of methane gas, microplastics and other particles in landfill creating airborne waste and causing detrimental effects on air quality and health (Park et al.,). Consumer behavior is key in shaping the environmental impact of compostable bags, underscoring the importance of educating consumers about the proper use and disposal of these bags. However, even with responsible use and maintenance, there is much more to still be done in disposal/waste of these bags.
Compostable produce bags are not recyclable, but this only limits their sustainability if the product is mishandled. Recycling can be defined as the process of converting an item into another, and typically that process begins by sorting material through standard recycling channels. Compostable produce bags are fundamentally designed to decompose back into the earth. If these bags happen to end up in recycling processes, they may be discarded, “causing many of these products to end up in landfills where they fail to break down" and create unnecessary solid and airborne waste (Intertek). Proper composting practice is dependent on the consumers behavior, and significant amounts of landfill waste can be avoided. While there are waste management methods outside of recycling, it is easy for the amount of byproducts and wastes can grow exponentially through these processes. 
Proper waste management is crucial to the graceful degradation of compostable produce bags, but current composting systems do not have the infrastructure to handle the decomposition efficiently. Compostable bags are designed to be composted, but according to Georget et al., "proper composting conditions are crucial for the degradation of compostable bags, and these conditions are rarely met in conventional waste facilities." This means that presently, many compostable bags do not achieve full decomposition and end up contributing to airborne and solid waste issues in landfills. Many regions lack the necessary tools to properly compost compostable materials, resulting in these bags being treated as conventional solid waste.
While the future of composting may seem grim at the moment, it has been discovered that Biogas, a byproduct from the decomposition of compostable bags, can be used as a sustainable energy; however, the generation of biogas requires careful management to ensure environmental sustainability (Mori et al.. Furthermore, the process of creating biogas involves significant energy, likely from a non-renewable source, and may produce additional byproducts with harmful waste. While increasing the amount of biogas produced may be beneficial for some causes, it is more important to prioritize the improvement of composting facilities to reduce waste. Both processes have trade-offs, but focusing on infrastructure improvements for composting has a higher net positive impact than generating more biogas.
To truly meet their eco-friendly promises, compostable produce bags need significant changes in every step of their life-cycle as they produce significant amounts of detrimental waste. Through education for consumers, improvements in infrastructure, and perhaps a shift to more renewable energy sources for fuel & electricity, it is our hope these bags will truly be as green as they claim to be. 

Works Cited

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Georget, Véronique, et al. "Engineering Antimicrobial Peptides to Maximize the Killing Activity against Drug-Resistant Bacteria." Macromolecular Bioscience, vol. 6, no. 10, 2006, pp. 813-823, https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/mabi.200600168 

Green Paper Products  "Compostable Bags." Green Paper Products, https://greenpaperproducts.com/collections/compostable-bags 

Hull, Robert M., and Paul R. Newell. "Assessment of Recycled Plastics as Structural Components for Agricultural Storage Structures." Journal of Polymers and the Environment, vol. 15, no. 1, 2007, pp. 21-26, https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10924-007-0068-1 

Intertek. "Final Report on Oxo-Biodegradable and Bio-Based Plastics." Biodegradable Plastics Institute, 15 May 2012, https://www.biodeg.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/intertek-final-report-15.5.121.pdf 

Markowicz, Florentyna, Grzegorz Król, and Agata Szymańska-Pulikowska. "Biodegradable Package – Innovative Purpose or Source of the Problem." Journal of Ecological Engineering, vol. 20, no. 1, 2019, pp. 228-237.

Mori, Mitja, et al. "Life Cycle Assessment of Supermarket Carrier Bags and Opportunity of Bioplastics." ResearchGate, 2014, https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Mitja-Mori/publication/267980535_LIFE_CYCLE_ASSESSMENT_OF_SUPERMARKET_CARRIER_BAGS_AND_OPPORTUNITY_OF_BIOPLASTICS/links/545e3f390cf2c1a63bfc1b93/LIFE-CYCLE-ASSESSMENT-OF-SUPERMARKET-CARRIER-BAGS-AND-OPPORTUNITY-OF-BIOPLASTICS.pdf 

Neira, Marcos, et al. "Role of Vegetation and Contaminant Load in Stormwater Runoff Quality in Urban Catchments: A Multivariate Statistical Approach." Environmental Science & Technology, vol. 53, no. 13, 2019, pp. 7547-7556, https://pubs.acs.org/doi/full/10.1021/acs.est.8b06984 

Park, Sam Joon, et al. "Indoors and Outdoors: Persistent Organic Pollutants in the Urban Environment and Air Quality." Environmental Pollution, vol. 292, 2022, article 118353, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301479721024695

Ugulu, İsmail, et al. "Environmental Attitudes and Behaviors of University Students and Their Levels of Knowledge about Environmental Issues: A Case Study in Turkey." Sustainability, vol. 13, no. 1, 2021, article 263, https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/13/1/263