Design Life-Cycle

Graphic sources on group poster

Volyk, Nataliia, et al. “Rubber Duck Stock Illustrations.” IStock, https://www.istockphoto.com/illustrations/rubber-duck. 

“Water Resources Business Plan Presentation.” Slidesgo, https://slidesgo.com/theme/water-resources-business-plan#search-water&position-1&results-51. 

Google slides images

Andrew Park

Cogdell

Des40A

2 December 2021

Life Cycle of a Rubber Duck: Materials

No other object is more symbolic of the bathtub than the rubber duck. Used by children of all ages, rubber ducks most likely exist in most households across the world. However, these cute, little ducks are made of many different kinds of materials, eventually leading to the dominant plastic vinyl ducks we see most often today. From acquiring raw materials to processing secondary materials, distributing, reusing, recycling, and managing the waste of rubber ducks, the life cycle of rubber ducks is considerably complex. The materials that have gone into making these small, usually yellow, plastic ducks have changed over the past few centuries, reverting back to the use of more recyclable materials after many years of manufacturing rubber ducks with plastics such as PVC. This paper will go through the life cycle of rubber ducks, specifically the parts of the cycle that pertain to the materials contributing to the production of rubber ducks and some of the materials used after its production.

Back in the late 1800s, toys were made from actual rubber. The first ducks were produced using vulcanized rubber, the same material used to create automobile tires. Rubber ducks made of vulcanized rubber were “billed” as chew toys, not bath toys, as they did not float (Simonovich). This type of rubber was made by combining rubber, sulfur, and other chemicals through a heating process called vulcanization. In this process, cross-links are formed between rubber molecules with the help of sulfur molecules, increasing its elasticity and allowing for more durable, long-lasting rubber. Compared to natural rubber, which is a linear polymer in which only “molecular chain entanglements constitute junctions” that increase the elasticity of rubber (Coran). In short,  by sending natural rubber through processes, a secondary material that is much tougher and elastic can be manufactured to create products such as rubber ducks and tires. Later, more efficient and cost effective processes of vulcanization were developed in the early 1900s, such as the addition of accelerators to rubber to increase the speed of vulcanization. Though quick and efficient, the byproducts of vulcanization were not very healthy to the environment. Vulcanization caused nitrosamine – carcinogenic to animals (Yang et al.) – and SO2 emissions (Makuuchi). Because vulcanized rubber contains sulfur, which is not completely healthy to consume as a young child, after the use of vulcanized rubber, rubber ducks were manufactured using PVC (polyvinyl chloride), a type of plastic vinyl synthesized with petroleum and other chemicals.

PVC is one of the most common plastics manufactured worldwide, as 44.3 million metric tons of PVC were produced in 2018 (Tiseo). PVC is used in many materials, such as window frames, drainage pipes, medical devices, wire insulation, most tubing and plastic bags, and lastly, rubber ducks. PVC is made through multiple processes. The five main steps include: the extraction of salt and hydrocarbon from nature as primary materials, the production of ethylene and chlorine from the primary materials (now secondary materials), the combination of chlorine and ethylene to create vinyl chloride monomer (VCM), the polymerization of VCM to make PVC, and modifying the PVC polymer with other materials to produce different variations of PVC (such as rigid tubes or soft plastic bags). In step one, the main salt used to make PVC is sea salt, which can be acquired via sea water. Because electrolysis will be performed in step 2, the salt itself is not extracted from the water. The hydrocarbon resources can be found in petroleum, one of the most commonly used resources for fuels, electricity, and plastics. In step two, electrolysis of the salt begins. By placing a cathode and an anode (connected by wires and a battery for an electrical current) in a solution, the aqueous salt will split into its respective ions (Na+ and Cl-). The cations (Na+) will be attracted to the cathode which has a negative charge after the flow of electrons through the wires, and the anions (Cl-) will travel to the anode. In a closed system, this flow can be modified so that the chlorine ions, which eventually combine with another to form chlorine gas (Cl2), travel out one tube for use in the next step. Ethylene is created through multiple steps, starting with petroleum. Though there are multiple ways of creating ethylene, the British Plastics Federation describes the process in two steps: refining petroleum into naphtha, then cracking naphtha into ethylene. Cracking is a chemical process in which a larger molecule is split into smaller, lighter molecules with the application of heat and/or catalysts (Britannica). In step three, chlorine is combined with ethylene through direct chlorination, a process in which the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency describes that “ethylene is treated with chlorine in the presence of a catalyst to produce EDC.” EDC is then thermally cracked (cracking process described above) to create the vinyl chloride monomer (VCM). In step four, VCM is polymerized to make PVC through a process called addition polymerization. In addition polymerization, monomers are combined via single, double, or triple bonds to create polymers (McKeen). There are four main ways to perform addition polymerization: suspension polymerization, emulsion polymerization, bulk polymerization, and solution polymerization. In the USA, 75% of all PVC is made via suspension polymerization, 12% emulsion polymerization, and 10% bulk polymerization. Suspension polymerization is the polymerization process in which “(VCM), water, initiator, buffer, suspending agent, and other additives are charged to a polymerization reactor under pressure” (Peeples) until polymerization is complete. Lastly, in step 5, the PVC is blended with other materials depending on what the final product is. In the case of a rubber duck, a softer but still rigid plastic should be used to maintain the physical properties of the duck while still keeping the squishy feel of the classic rubber duck. After the dominant use of vulcanized rubber for rubber ducks, a cheaper, more accessible alternative of ducks made of plastic vinyl became more popular. This allowed for the creation of a hollow, colored rubber duck. However, since the production of PVC requires a lot of petroleum despite the limited amount available for us to use, there may soon not be enough natural resources for us to manufacture rubber ducks until a new method to produce PVC is discovered. 

Once the PVC is manufactured and rubber ducks are produced via rotocasting, the rubber ducks are sent to sellers and purchased by consumers. After they are used by children who eventually grow up, rubber ducks either end up in the landfills or in another family’s household. This is due to the unfortunate fact that PVC ducks are not easy to recycle despite being a thermoplastic (material that becomes soft when heated up) as opposed to thermoset plastics (material that does not heat up, therefore is not recyclable) because not all rubber ducks made of hard plastic are recyclable (Bennett). Recycling rubber ducks requires a special service or process that most curbside recycling programs do not offer. For example, the programs offered by the Waste Management company (WM) do not accept rigid plastic items as they cannot recycle them. Though the end of a rubber duck’s life cycle is often at a landfill, rubber ducks last quite a long time and can be reused by donating to families who want or need a plastic toy for their children or a decoration for their bathtub.

A common bath toy, the rubber duck, has a complicated life many may not think about. Even though not 100% of all rubber ducks are recyclable, the changes in materials used to produce rubber ducks (rubber to hard plastic vinyl to more recyclable, eco-friendly plastics) shows that after the long use of hard plastics, people may have begun to understand how the materials of a rubber duck impact its life cycle. The change in secondary materials used for its production and the ability to recycle rubber ducks is becoming more common, lengthening the life cycle of the rubber duck.

Works Cited

Bennett, Sophia. “How to Recycle Pool Toys.” Recycle Nation, 6 Nov. 2014, https://recyclenation.com/2014/11/recycle-pool-toys/.

BPF. “British Plastics Federation.” Polyvinyl Chloride PVC: Properties, Benefits & Applications, https://www.bpf.co.uk/plastipedia/polymers/pvc.aspx. Accessed 1 Dec. 2021.

Carey, Francis A. “Ethylene.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., https://www.britannica.com/science/ethylene. Accessed 1 Dec. 2021.

The Climate Reality Project. “Ethane Cracker Plants: What Are They?” Climate Reality, 6 Nov. 2019, https://www.climaterealityproject.org/blog/ethane-cracker-plants-what-are-they.

Coran, A.Y. “Vulcanization.” The Science and Technology of Rubber (Fourth Edition), Academic Press, 17 May 2013, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780123945846000078.

Cowley, Liné. “Latex vs Rubber. Is It the Same Thing?” Eco World, 24 May 2021, https://ecoworldonline.com/latex-vs-rubber-is-it-the-same-thing/. 

ECVM. “About PVC.” ECVM, 12 Dec. 2019, https://pvc.org/about-pvc/.

ECVM. “Vinyl Chloride Monomer (VCM) Production.” ECVM, 12 Dec. 2019, https://pvc.org/about-pvc/vinyl-chloride-monomer-vcm-production/.

The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Cracking.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., https://www.britannica.com/technology/cracking-chemical-process. Accessed 1 Dec. 2021.

Healthy Building Network. “Sorting out the Vinyls – When Is ‘Vinyl’ Not PVC?” Healthy Building Network, 28 Apr. 2005, https://healthybuilding.net/uploads/files/sorting-out-the-vinyls-when-is-vinyl-not-pvc.pdf. 

“HF Celebriducks.mp4,” Vimeo, uploaded by A. Underhill, 4 May 2015, https://vimeo.com/126861938.

Knowledge Center, Teknor Apex. “How Is PVC Made, Anyway?” The-PVC-Production-Process, 31 Mar. 2017, https://www.teknorapex.com/the-pvc-production-process. 

Körbahti, Bahadır K., and Abdurrahman Tanyolaç. “Electrochemical Treatment of Simulated Industrial Paint Wastewater in a Continuous Tubular Reactor.” Chemical Engineering Journal, Elsevier, 26 Sept. 2008, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1385894708006062.

Lahre, Thomas F. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle, NC, 1984, pp. 1–98, Locating and Estimating Air Emissions From Sources of Ethylene Dichloride.

Lichtarowicz, Marek. “Cracking and Related Refinery.” Cracking and Related Refinery Processes, 7 Sept. 2014, https://www.essentialchemicalindustry.org/processes/cracking-isomerisation-and-reforming.html.

Lorch, Dr Mark. “Why Are Some Plastics Recyclable and Others Are Not?” BBC Science Focus Magazine, https://www.sciencefocus.com/science/why-are-some-plastics-recyclable-and-others-are-not/. Accessed 1 Dec. 2021.

Makuuchi, K. “Environmentally Friendly Vulcanization Technology of Natural Rubber Latex by Radiation.” Ecomaterials, Elsevier, 17 Dec. 2013, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9781483283814501724.

McKeen, Laurence W. “Introduction to Plastics and Polymers.” Fatigue and Tribological Properties of Plastics and Elastomers (Third Edition), William Andrew Publishing, 1 Apr. 2016, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780323442015000034.

Peeples, William D. Process for the Suspension Polymerization of Polyvinyl Chloride. 11 Aug 1981. US4283516A. Google Patents, https://patents.google.com/patent/US4283516A/en. Accessed 1 Dec. 2021.

Rempel, Dietrich G. Rotary Casting Machine for Producing Hollow Rubber or Like Articles. 22 July 1952. US2603836A. Google Patents, https://patents.google.com/patent/US2603836. Accessed 15 Nov. 2021.

Saeki, Y., and T. Emura. “Technical Progresses for PVC Production.” Progress in Polymer Science, Elsevier, 16 Oct. 2002, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0079670002000394#BIB9.

Simonovich, Sarah. “Petroleum Product of the Week: Rubber Ducks: Industrial Outpost.” Industrial Outpost - The Official News Source of PSC, 8 Jan. 2018, http://www.industrialoutpost.com/petroleum-product-of-the-week-rubber-ducks/.

Sedaghat, Lilly. “7 Things You Didn't Know about Plastic (and Recycling).” National Geographic Society Newsroom, 13 Apr. 2018, https://blog.nationalgeographic.org/2018/04/04/7-things-you-didnt-know-about-plastic-and-recycling/.

“Thermosetting Polymer.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 16 Nov. 2021, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermosetting_polymer.

Tiseo, Ian. “PVC Production Volume Worldwide 2020.” Statista, 27 Jan. 2021, https://www.statista.com/statistics/720296/global-polyvinyl-chloride-market-size-in-tons/.

“Vulcanization and Accelerators.” Nocil, Arvind Mafatlal Group, http://www.nocil.com/Downloadfile/DTechnicalNote-Vulcanization-Dec10.pdf. Accessed 1 Dec. 2021.

Waste Management: Waste Disposal & Recycling. Waste Management Company, https://www.wm.com/us/en. Accessed 15 Nov. 2021.

Tzvi Lev Weber

Cogdell

Des40A 

2 December 2021

Life Cycle of Rubber Ducks: Embodied Energy

Having gone through many iterations, the current rubber duck’s manufacturing process is relatively streamlined, but there will always be room for improvement. Throughout this paper, we will take a look at the energy used throughout the manufacturing and transportation of rubber ducks, from when the raw resources are collected to when the finished duck is sent to the store or your doorstep. 

Several raw materials go into rubber ducks, but the foremost one would be PVC. Polyvinyl chloride, commonly known as “vinyl” or “PVC”, has been the main component in rubber ducks since 1947 when a sculptor named Peter Ganine1 filed a patent for a toy he had made out of vinyl. In this paper, unless stated otherwise, we will be assuming that the duck’s body is made of vinyl. Polyvinyl chloride is created through a process called “Polymerization”[1], and was originally a rigid material. This original material which we now call “RPVC” was made into the malleable one we know today through the addition of plasticizers and other additives.  Most production is done through “suspension polymerization”, a bulk polymerization method that uses water or solvent as coolant. It’s more economical and environmentally friendly than most solvents used in solution-based polymerization since it uses water as the base.[2] We currently make PVC using “compounding machines”, that introduce the additives and spin at very high speeds to hugely accelerate the process. After extensive research into several companies, such as YILI MACHINERY, a leading provider of said machines (which gave us an estimate that for every 100kw/hr spent we will produce 350kg of PVC).[3] I eventually came across a 2015 report from the European Council of Vinyl Manufacturers (ECVM).[4] In it, they state that for every 1kg of Suspension PVC (S-PVC), they use approximately 56.9MJ of non-renewable energy and 3.7MJ renewable energy. Using the “Munchkin White Hot Safety Bath Ducky” (the “amazon choice” ducky) as reference for our estimation, which is fully PVC, we set the weight of our rubber ducky at ~25.8g. 350kg of PVC could make ~13566 duckies, giving us an estimate of 0.0073713696kw/hr (or 7.3713696w) per ducky. To aid with visualization, this is the amount of expected power required to run a robot vacuum cleaner for one hour. While that would be a great line to end the paper, PVC had to come from somewhere.

PVC is made from Ethylene Dichloride. The “polymerization” I mentioned earlier turns it into Vinyl Chloride Monomer (VCM), which then can become vinyl resin or vinyl compound. Ethylene Dichloride is made through catalytic or thermal cracking, combining ethylene and chlorine. Ethylene and chlorine are in turn gotten from oil and salt, usually with petroleum and brine (a saltwater solution). EDC production is normally done in a fluidized bed reactor. However, since we used their estimates for the PVC production, we will be continuing to use the earlier report by ECVM.[4] Through it, we find that “the ethylene used in the manufacture of ethylene dichloride is produced by steam cracking of naphtha. The chlorine is derived from common salt (NaCl) by electrolysis.” It seems that after extensive searching through PlasticsEurope and educational archives, their (PlasticsEurope’s) 2012 report on ethylene production/consumption that is cited on the ECVM[4] report is no longer available. I will instead use Susana Broeiro Bento’s 2017 Thesis on the subject[5] to estimate our conversion of ethylene to ethylene dichloride. By averaging the two tables used in said thesis we can estimate a conversion rate of around 55%, but there is no consistent data available to the public for the conversion of petroleum into ethylene. To clarify how ethylene is obtained, “Naphtha” is a word used to describe any given flammable liquid or hydrocarbon mixture. Ethylene is primarily produced by cracking petroleum-based naphtha, which is created through the distillation of crude oil. 

The two largest exporters of crude oil are Saudi Arabia and Venezuela. They will harvest the oil and convert it into ethylene in-house, before shipping it to any given PVC manufactory. Since there are nearly none in Saudi Arabia nor Venezuela, we can assume that they’re sent to Taiwan or China who are the current PVC powerhouses (if you’ll excuse the alliteration) of the world. While transporting the oil, they also have to use several thousand gallons of it as fuel. While rarely that fuel might be jet fuel in the case where we travel by air, we normally see it in the form of “bunker fuel” used by tankers shipping over the seas. The two most used ports in Saudi Arabia and Taiwan respectively are the Jeddah Islamic Port and the Port of Xiamen. Using an estimate of 225 tons bunker fuel per day at 24 knots (for a containership of roughly 8000 TEU)10, and a travel distance of 6800 nautical miles: we find a travel time of roughly 11 days and 19 hours, with a fuel cost of 2655 tons of fuel.A

After its arrival in Taiwan and transformation into PVC, our raw materials are transported to a factory that produces rubber ducks. While some are local to Taiwan, many are in the EU or US. Celebriducks is a good example of a “local” manufacturer, but they still receive their PVC from overseas suppliers. Once they’ve received the PVC, they start the production process. According to a video from HOME FACTORY (a series from HGTV)8, Celebriducks use 400g of yellow PVC (which is roughly 3 ducks based on the final weights listed on their packages) and bake them into their mold for 15 minutes at 150°C. Afterward, they are buffed at a rotary belt and trimmed before being sent to their conveyor line. They are then painted using airbrushes and stencils before being sent to quality control, where they have a 50g weight placed in the bottom to keep them upright. This process likely takes the least energy, as conveyors and airbrushes take very little power to operate. The most intensive machinery would likely be the rotational oven used to solidify the liquid plastic, but since it’s run at roughly 302°F it is more negligible than the energy I use to make a set of dinosaur-shaped chicken nuggets (at 425°F for 15 minutes). The finished duck is then; individually wrapped, boxed with several others, and sent to the buyer (wholesale or otherwise.) In the case of the buyer being a secondary supplier (wholesale), it is then technically shipped an extra time when it is picked up by (or shipped to) a final buyer.

Rubber ducks don’t have specific methods of maintenance, nor do they have specific methods of disposal. They’re often kept for several years by the buyer before their eventual trip to a landfill, or are kept for longer/indefinite periods in the case of “collectible ducks”. PVC is notoriously hard to dispose of, but we’ve made leaps and strides towards reuse and safe disposal over the past few years. Now, instead of sitting in the landfill, they can be reformed into window or door frames. Previously, burning them would release several dangerous chemicals into the air, but as we’ve improved incineration techniques we’ve also heavily reduced the output of said chemicals.[6] Incineration or reformation would be what I consider the limit of the embodied energy a rubber duck bears. 

I’d like to start my afterword by saying that I spared no effort trying to get an accurate approximation of a rubber duck’s embodied energy. While the process of making one is quite simple, I found a lot of interest in the PVC production process and the chemical pathway it took. I read several academic papers that eventually lead nowhere, from multiple different sources around the globe. I have no doubts at this point that I could accurately describe the pathway step by step, but all of the specifics are covered under trade laws. I was specifically frustrated with the inability to access the previously mentioned 2012 report by PlasticsEurope since I needed it to connect the ethylene to the petroleum, and I believe the petroleum collection/transport would be one of the largest expenditures within the lifecycle. The rubber duck is relatively low cost, although they are made on a large scale. I honestly expected more, but the lack of rotomoulding or any real complex technique in the Celebriducks factory “ruined my fun” so to speak. I spent a lot of time looking into the different machines, hoping that a company or factory would slip up and post their energy expenditures on a public domain. The whole process helped me realize just how closed the doors can be under the current global brand of capitalism. I went so far as to start an email chain with celebriducks, which led to some interesting discoveries that they don’t have on their website. The plastic they use in their “BPA” free ducks, for one, was really interesting to look into. I was happy that I managed to estimate one or two things, and that I found the information I did. I don’t think there was any reasonable way for me to estimate the energy used during transport without a shipping manifest, and there wasn’t a way for me to estimate from warehouse to home. However, the time I spent researching the backend processes helped me really narrow down what (out of all the byproducts of several processes) goes into PVC, and therefore the duck. I’m satisfied with the result of my work, as vague as it might be, and am far more confident in my research abilities moving forward.

If you’re curious about current advancements in PVC recycling/reuse, please look into VinyLoop, and the current operating plant in Ferrara, Italy.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1 - Manas Chanda. 01 Nov 2017, Plastics Properties and Testing from: Plastics Technology Handbook CRC Press Accessed on: 30 Nov 2021 

2 - “EDC/VCM Process.” Vinnolit, 26 Jan. 2021, https://www.vinnolit.com/en/licensing/edc-vcm-process/. 

3 - “PVC Compounding Machine.” YILI Machinery, https://www.yilipm.com/product/pvc-compounding-machine.html. 

4 - “Eco-profiles and Environmental Product Declarations of the European Plastics Manufacturers - Vinyl chloride (VCM) and Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)”. PlasticsEurope, November 2012. https://pvc4pipes.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/PlasticsEurope_Eco-profile_VCM_PVC_2015-05.pdf

5 - Bento, Susana Broeiro. “Ethylene Dichloride Cracker Modelling and State Estimation.” Instituto Superior Técnico, 2017. 

6 - Ciotti, Carlo, and Arjen Sevenster. “PVC: To Burn or Not to Burn?” 

Waste Management World, 19 Dec. 2013, https://waste-management-world.com/a/pvc-to-burn-or-not-to-burn. 

7 - Worldofchemicals. “How Is Polyvinyl Chloride Made?” Worldofchemicals.com, Worldofchemicals, 16 June 2017, https://www.worldofchemicals.com/564/chemistry-articles/process-for-making-polyvinyl-chloride.html#:~:text=PVC%20is%20made%20using%20a%20process%20called%20addition,nC2H3Cl%20%3D%20%28C2H3Cl%29n%20vinyl%20chloride%20monomer%20%3D%20polyvinylchloride. 

8 - “Made in America.” CelebriDucks Rubber Duck Characters, https://celebriducks.com/made-in-america/. 

9 - “How Is PVC Made, Anyway?” The-PVC-Production-Process, 31 Mar. 2017, https://www.teknorapex.com/the-pvc-production-process. 

10 - Notteboom, Theo, and Pierre Cariou. “IAME 2009 Conference.” Fuel Surcharge Practices of Container Shipping Lines: Is It about Cost Recovery or Revenue-Making?, 2009. 

A - (A useless estimation I included because it made me smile) While the “bunker fuel” oil tankers use is hugely different from the fuel we put in our cars, relating them purely on volume, a honda civic 2018 could drive ~2697880 miles with 2655 tons of low grade gasoline. The same amount it takes a tanker (of previously stated specifications) to sail ~7825.

Amy Hongkham

Cogdell

Des40A 

2 December 2021

Life Cycle of Rubber Ducks: Waste and Emissions

A squeaky, yellow, rubber duck in modern times is a rubber toy believed to improve the developmental skills of children during water play as they bathe. It’s a bright and fun addition to the bathtub but being such mundane items, many are not quick to consider the efforts and acquisitions that go into making rubber ducks. Additionally, many who buy rubber ducks also do not consider the manufacturing and waste emitted to make such items which negatively impact the environmental state of our planet. This paper will be mainly focused on the waste and emissions that are derived from acquiring raw materials, manufacturing, transportation, reuse, recycling, and waste management of generic vinyl plastic rubber ducks. Knowing these processes is also known as the “product’s lifecycle”. After reading this paper, the audience should be able to become more informed of the general pattern and dangers associated with making rubber ducks by breaking down the specific details of its own life cycle. We as readers should become cognizant of the harmful emissions that contribute to climate change deriving from these multiple processes.

To begin, let’s discuss the waste emitted from acquiring raw materials in order to make rubber ducks. Most rubber ducks today are made from Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) which is essentially made of ethylene found in crude oil and chloride from natural salts. Ethylene is produced from “the cracking of fractions obtained from distillation of natural gas and oil” which requires the heating of natural gas and petroleum which requires the extensive use of greenhouse gases (Carey). Combining both ethylene and chloride produces high volumes of hazardous waste that contaminate the air, land, and water surrounding these factories. The waste in the production of PVC essentially includes toxic byproducts such as “dioxin which can cause developmental problems in humans or even give them cancer through airborne exposure” (greenpeace.org). Making PVC also requires the incorporation of plasticizers to make the rubber material more malleable. A common plasticizer used in polyvinyl chloride is phthalates, however, these phthalate plasticizers are not chemically bound to vinyl, making them susceptible to leaking into the environment (Heurdof). Therefore, humans can be exposed to phthalates through ingestion, inhalation, or even skin absorption and endure their carcinogenic impacts (ecocenter.org). In addition to the vinyl that creates rubber ducks, there is the application of synthetic paint that surrounds these products which gives rubber ducks their vibrancy and detail. “Paints release volatile organic compounds (VOCs) during the drying process after the coating is applied” which contributes to the formation of the ground-level ozone putting humans at risk for severe lung complications (​​Burbaugh). Additionally, “emissions from isothiazolinone preservatives methylisothiazolinone (MI) are used in a wide variety of products including paint and cosmetics”, and both are known to cause allergic contact dermatitis when given exposure (Lundov). With all of these gathered materials in mind, next, we will begin discussing the waste emissions of the manufacturing process of rubber ducks.

To continue, there is much to be discussed when considering how rubber ducks are processed let alone the emissions derived from said processes. In factories, melted yellow plastic is placed into a duck-shaped mold that is put into a rotational oven to be heated up in a process called “roto-casting” (​​Burbaugh). This is what allows the vinyl to be spread evenly throughout the mold while leaving the interior hollow. Although vinyl is heat resistant, it “releases hydrogen chloride gas when heated and is lethal'' when inhaled by the average human (greenpeace.org). Like most ovens, rotational ovens engage in combustion to produce heat, so we can assume that plenty of carbon emissions are released at the cost of making rubber duck molds. Plenty of thermal and electrical energy is utilized however these types of energy contribute to around “39% of energy-related greenhouse gases globally” (Leung). These duck molds are then buffed meaning that smaller bits of vinyl plastic will be discarded for landfill since PVC products are extremely difficult to recycle. For easier and more efficient product making, these rubber molds are then airbrushed with synthetic paint for aesthetic purposes in terms of painting the eyes or the break of rubber ducks. The most notable environmental impact from airbrush paint would have to be the release of “volatile organic compounds (VOC) after the coating is dried and applied” (​​Burbaugh). Considering that rubber ducks are mass-produced, many would have to consider the copious amounts of labor that real-life humans contribute to making these products. Since bulks of rubber ducks are sold for a cheap price, it would not be too out of reach to assume that laborers are being exploited to create these products (more workers equals more waste produced from labor). After the ducks are polished by laborers they are ready for distribution and are delivered to stores or to the homes of consumers. 

In terms of transportation, many rubber ducks find their way in shipments from many imports such as China and are brought by overseas freight to other countries. The International Transport Forum (itf.org) “estimates that international trade-related freight transport currently accounts for around 30% of all transport-related CO2 emissions from fuel combustion, and more than 7% of global emissions” (itf.org). This would account for transportations via cargo ship or even via airplanes which give off immense amounts of carbon emissions when in use. Additionally, since rubber ducks are made and sold in bulk, they are brought and packaged in more plastic and cardboard. Cardboard is known to be biodegradable meaning that it produces methane as it breaks down over time unless recycled. Next, we will then discuss the details concerning the recycling of rubber duck materials. 

Recycling the materials or reusing the fundamental parts of rubber ducks is pretty tricky considering how PVC makes up most rubber ducks. A major problem with recycling polyvinyl chloride is the high chlorine content that is found in these plastics resulting in higher disposal rates as toxic chemicals can get mixed in with other plastics. However, there are rare cases in which vinyl plastic can be reused through delicate processes.  “Thermal Gravimetric Analysis (TGA) was conducted to infer the moisture, volatile, and inorganic filler fractions and the extent of thermal stability [of these plastics in order to]... design the re-compounding, extrusion, and injection conditions for the post-consumer PVC” (Rubio). The results of these studies suggest that the PVC cable polymer can be reutilized if its properties are altered, entailing some potential for recycling for overall environmental benefit. However optimal conditions for full dechlorination of PVC plastics may include processes like vapor treatment which implies that plenty of heat and water will be utilized (Cui). Plenty of carbon dioxide and toxic waste emissions will arise in an attempt to reuse vinyl plastic. However, on another note PVC has the potential to be recycled into other PVC products due to the fact that “used vinyl can be ground up into pellets that can then be melted down to create other vinyl products” (Sadat-Shojai). Next, we will talk about the afterlife of a discarded rubber duck. They have a  lingering impact on the environment. 

The disposal of rubber ducks, unfortunately, usually involves the incorporation of a landfill. While it is possible to recycle products made from polyvinyl chloride, it requires more amounts of energy and labor thus, questioning if the effort, time, and energy expended is worth the potential recycling.  Rubberducks after being purchased are usually discarded quickly due to their lack of purpose or usefulness and are thrown into the garbage where they are incinerated with other landfill waste. If plastics are not disposed of properly in landfills, they often flow into waterways and subsequently into the sea, where they can find their way around the world and continue to pollute distant countries. More commonly when PVC plastic wastes are incinerated, “higher-ringed polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons constitute a larger percentage in the bottom ash of furnaces as compared to plastics from PP and HDPE plastics” (Li). CO concentrations correlate extremely well with total “polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and thus can be used as a strong indicator for PVC emissions” (Li). Additionally, according to the Center for International Environmental Law report, “U.S. emissions from plastics incineration in 2015 were 5.9 million metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalent” (Carey). Burning PVC releases plenty of toxic pollutants making incinerator workers and people living near these incinerator facilities at most risk to toxic exposure. This puts many citizens at risk for respiratory and cancerous symptoms and should be regulated. Overall the rubber duck’s life cycle whether it be in use or discarded is detrimental to climate change.

In conclusion, when considering the life cycle of rubber ducks, whether it be gathering necessary materials, transportation, or manufacturing, all of these processes contribute to making massive waste emissions that harm our environment. Any form of airborne waste that ruins the quality of the atmosphere, puts our people at risk for health issues and furthers the danger of climate change should be regulated as much as possible for the future of the planet. We should be mindful and question how much we need certain products and if they’re worth the price the planet pays once they are made and discarded. As we can see there is so much effort and waste that derives from creating rubber ducks when the item itself rarely gives any substance to modern-day life. Customers today should consider not contributing to the harmful cycle of mass-consumer waste by buying only what is necessary for life and being more environmentally conscious of waste emitted from the production of products.

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