Design Life-Cycle

 Annetta Uzun

DES 40A

Professor Cogdell

The Material Life Cycle of the RoadStar 

Introduction

If you have walked or driven on Old Davis Road on the UC Davis Campus, you may have noticed the sharp looking new LED streetlights. UC Davis took up a renovating project when it saw the need to reduce the state’s energy consumption and carbon footprint and would result in a projected 86% in energy and CO2E savings and almost 1.5 million in energy cost savings. After having a list of street light candidates, UC Davis decided to incorporate the RoadStar by Philips Lumec because of its cost efficiency and the ability to have wireless connected system.(SPEED) Lumec is a lighting company whose mission is to design innovative, aesthetic street and roadway lighting that translates their pursuit of a sustainable and brighter world.

We can guarantee outstanding results when making the switch to use LED censored lighting, but this research will take an extensive search of the materials used in the housing unit of the street light. Throughout this study the use of materials will be scrutinized in their entire life-cycle, which will include stages in energy production and wastes and emissions. Our goal is to be able to deduce at the end of this study if the housing unit is made from sustainable and environmental materials.

Lumecs RoadStar series boasts of an energy saving, environmentally friendly, sustainable and yet aesthetic street light. However, for this specific research we will analyze only one aspect of the RoadStar, the housing unit. Provided on the models specifications sheet, the materials that Lumec’s RoadStar housing unit is made of, is of a low copper die cast aluminum alloy that is covered with polyester powder coat paint, includes zinc plated clamps and steel hexagonal bolts. 

Low Copper Die Cast Aluminum Alloy

The low copper die cast aluminum is the largest material that covers the housing unit. The aluminum is mined in various parts throughout the continents with the largest producers in China and Australia. Aluminum has two sources in which it is harvested from; the first is its natural source, bauxite, which is a clay, laterite soil, that is formed into a rock usually found in subtropical or tropical regions. Usually bauxite is found at the surface ground level and allows the method of strip mining to be used in obtaining the rock. (The Aluminum Association) 

After the mining stage, bauxite is transported to factories to be taken through the processing stage, the Bayer Process which is the most economical method of extracting alumina from bauxite. (The International Aluminum Institute) The four step process of the Bayer Process includes digestion, clarification, precipitation, and calcination. During the digestion stage, sodium hydroxide is added to the ground bauxite, and after steam and heat pressure are applied sodium aluminate is formed that is separated in the clarification stage. After refining bauxite, the output of aluminum from the amount of bauxite imputed calculates to half of the tons invested. (Staley and Van Horn) The primary form of aluminum, after casting the aluminum in ingots, is transported to customers or is used to produce aluminum alloys. (UC RUSAL)

Because the housing unit uses a die cast aluminum alloy, the primary aluminum is molted with usually less than 5% of copper in mold cavities. Copper improves the strength and hardness of the aluminum; however the resistance to corrosion is decreased and continues to gradually decrease as more copper is added. (Copper Constituent In Die Cast Alloy: The Basic Aluminum Casting Company) To create a smooth casting, the molted metal is subjected to high pressure and high speed that is maintained untill the metal becomes a solid. After the metal is hardened, the cast is opened to remove the aluminum.(What Is Die Cast Aluminum?: The Basic Aluminum Casting Company) Using a polyester powder coating are chosen for their durability and resistance to UV rays and various weather conditions and resistance to corrosion, while characterizing a thin coat of paint. (Turner, Sonji L, et al) 

The second source of aluminum is recycled aluminum scraps. This second source of aluminum is highly valuable because of the amount of energy it saves as it requires only 5% of the energy in producing the exact amount of the primary aluminum. (UC RUSAL) The recycling of the metal does not result in any loss of the quality in the material, which also benefits the attraction in reusing aluminum. 

Polyester Powder Coat Paint

As a producer of aesthetic and versatile products, Lumec offers various colors of polyester powder coat paint as a finish, and has great overall environmental benefits compared to liquid paint. Almost all powder paint coatings are made of the five elements; resins, cross-linkers, additives, pigments, and extenders. Once the ingredients are combined to create a premix, it is run through an extruder, cooled, granulated, grinded, sieved, and packaged. During the powder coating process, waste is produced during the manufacturing stage when the fine grains are wasted and when particles are over sprayed and don’t stick to the product while it is being powder coated. However, the residue can be collected and reused which would decrease any waste accumulated. 

On average the efficiency of powder coat paint is 63% with the remaining 37% unfortunately ending up in a landfill. (DirectiveGroup, Inc.) As there is more development in powder coatings that can cure at low temperatures, we are able to save on the amount of energy used. Also, as a comparison on the difference between using a liquid pain coat and a powder coat, powder coatings have a 50% reduction in the carbon footprint. (Onsager, 2019)

Creative, reusable methods have been developed to remove as much waste of the powder coat as possible. Used colored powders can be blended together with black to produce a neutral tone that is then able to be used on a generic component or to form plastic parts by melting the waste powder. (Fabricators & Manufacturers Association Intl)

Zinc

Thirdly, the housing unit uses zinc to plate over the steel bolts. Zinc is a natural element of the earth and as such needs to be mined through underground or open cast mining, with the majority being underground. Once the zinc is harvested it is milled down to a fine powder, mixed with water and is taken through a separation process by adding chemicals that aid in using the floatation technique to filter out contaminants. After the zinc is taken to the foundry, it is then shaped to its desired form.  One of zinc’s important properties is that it protects steel’s long life span by giving more durability to products varying from consumer to construction. (Genderen, Eric Van, et al) 

From the materials mentioned so far that the housing unit is made of, the acquisition and processing of zinc is the least beneficial to our environment as it produces an immense amount of liquid waste, sulfur dioxide and cadmium vapor, is energy intensive, large ratio of CO2 to zinc being produced and water pollution. (GreenSpec) In our world’s usage of zinc, in a one year timeline 16 million tons was used with only 4 million tons was recycled. (Zinc Sustainability) Because zinc is taken out of mineral ore, other traces of elements are harvested with the zinc and are not effectively processed. These elements then end up in the waste streams during the production of the primary material. This accumulation of jarosite waste is one of the leading environmental issues in the production of zinc, because these ponds of waste are no longer a solution in solving zinc’s waste problem. (Moors, Ellen H.M., and Gerard P.J. Dijkema) In whole the powder coat paint needs to be produced in a more efficient and sustainable way.

Steel

The final material that Lumec’s housing unit uses is steel for its bolts. Steel is an alloy that is produced by an option of a few processes; based on coal, an electric arc furnace or open hearth. In short, coking coal is what produces coke that with the application of water and heat is used to make iron which is then used to create steel. (World Coal Association) The biggest down side of the production of steel is the large amount of carbon dioxide it produces, totaling around 7% of all global emissions. The greenhouse gases that are transmitted is from the energy in the production and manufacturing process of the materials, as well as, chemical. (SEI) However, steel is a very sustainable material because it can be recycled numerous amounts and still hold onto its properties.  Though we may argue that the materials used to make steel, like fossil fuels and minerals, are truly invested in the product because steel can be used indefinitely. (Tata Steel) 

The transportation of steel varies with cost, destination, amount of product, etc. and because steel is mainly produced internationally, steel can be shipped, rail transported or flown across oceans to its destination. (GROUPE EXCESS International) In conclusion, once steel is manufactured its recyclable characteristics make it a desirable material to produce.

Conclusion

Though the manufacturer, Lumec, praises the sustainability and leading-edge design of its product, there is still something to be desired. During the process of the manufacturing stages or in its use after production, the materials themselves are still affecting our atmosphere with CO2, creating liquid waste, polluting water or not being energy efficient. The majority of the raw materials, bauxite (aluminum), steel and zinc are still being mined in China, Australia, and other parts of the world. However, when you analyze if the materials are reusable or recyclable, you would find that the raw materials used are sustainable because they come back to the cradle stage of their life cycle. Steel and aluminum do not lose their properties and are able to be recycled continually. Lumec’s RoadStar, does use a substantial amount of sustainable and renewable materials that provide durability, UV protection, and aesthetic to the road side. Lumec has designed not only a energy saving LED lighting unit, but a renewable housing unit as well.

Bibliography

AG, interstruct. “Downloads (Adobe Reader Required).” Mining and Refining – Process, The International Aluminum Institute, 2018, http://bauxite.world-aluminium.org/refining/process/.

“Aluminium Life Cycle.” Hydro.com, Norsk Hydro ASA, https://www.hydro.com/en/about-aluminium/aluminium-life-cycle/.

“Aluminium Production.” Aluminium Production Process, UC RUSAL, https://www.aluminiumleader.com/production/aluminum_production/.

Basic Aluminum Casting Company. “Copper Costituent In Die Cast Alloy: The Basic Aluminum Casting Co.” The Basic Aluminum Casting Company, The Basic Aluminum Casting Company, 1 July 2019, https://basicaluminum.com/copper-costituent-in-die-cast-alloy/.

Basic Aluminum Casting Company. “What Is Die Cast Aluminum?: The Basic Aluminum Casting Co.” The Basic Aluminum Casting Company, 1 July 2019, basicaluminum.com/what-is-die-cast-aluminum/.

“Bauxite.” Bauxite | The Aluminum Association, https://www.aluminum.org/industries/production/bauxite.

“Campus-Wide Networked Adaptive LED Lighting.” SPEED: State Partnership for Energy Efficient Demonstrations, http://cltc.ucdavis.edu/sites/default/files/files/publication/FINAL_CS_UCDavis_Scaled_Deployment_Networked_Exterior_13June2014.pdf.

“Dispersing the Powder Coat Waste Problem on Journey to Zero Landfill.” Fabricators & Manufacturers Association Intl. (FMA), 22 Jan. 2010, https://www.fmanet.org/blog/2010/01/21/dispersing-powder-coat-waste-problem-journey-zero-landfill.

Genderen, Eric Van, et al. “A Global Life Cycle Assessment for Primary Zinc Production.” SpringerLink, Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 31 May 2016, https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11367-016-1131-8.

“How Is Steel Produced?” World Coal Association, 22 Feb. 2019, https://www.worldcoal.org/coal/uses-coal/how-steel-produced.

“Iron and Steel Transport.” Transitaire Fret International GROUPE EXCESS, https://excess.international/skills-expertise/iron-steel-transport/?lang=en.

LUMEC by Signify. Lumec GPLS RoadStar LED Architectural Roadway Luminaire

“Low-Emission Steel Production: Decarbonizing Heavy Industry.” SEI, 19 Sept. 2019, https://www.sei.org/perspectives/low-emission-steel-production-hybrit/.

Moors, Ellen H.M., and Gerard P.J. Dijkema. “Embedded Industrial Production Systems: Lessons from Waste Management in Zinc Production.” Technological Forecasting and Social Change, North-Holland, 25 July 2005, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0040162505000922.

Onsager, Steven. “Sustainability in Powder Coating.” Process Heating RSS, Process Heating, 28 Aug. 2019, https://www.process-heating.com/articles/93110-sustainability-in-powder-coating.

“Powder Coating: How to Dispose off Waste.” Powder Coating Planet, DirectiveGroup, Inc., https://www.powdercoatingplanet.com/blog/powder-coating--how-to-dispose-off-waste-/.

Reshift Media. “How Is Stainless Steel Made?” Metal Supermarkets - Steel, Aluminum, Stainless, Hot-Rolled, Cold-Rolled, Alloy, Carbon, Galvanized, Brass, Bronze, Copper, MSKS IP, 8 Feb. 2019, https://www.metalsupermarkets.com/stainless-steel-made/.

“Reveal Your Resounding Uniqueness.” RoadStar LED Architectural Roadway Small (GPLS-G2) - Architectural Arm Mount - Roadway - Outdoor Luminaires | Philips Lumec, Signify Holding, Aug. 2019, http://www.lightingproducts.signify.com/Documents/webdb2/Lumec/pdf/PLu-1307BR-RoadStar-brochure.pdf.

“RoadFocus.” Signify, Signify Holding, 2018, https://www.signify.com/en-us/brands/product-highlights/roadfocus.

“RoadStar LED Architectural Roadway Small (GPLS-G2).” RoadStar LED Architectural Roadway Small (GPLS-G2) - Architectural Arm Mount - Roadway - Outdoor Luminaires | Philips Lumec, Signify, http://www.lightingproducts.signify.com/our-brands/lumec/roadstar-led-architectural-roadway-small-gpls-g2.html#!f=@Brand:Lumec+@Category:Roadway.

Staley, James T., and Kent R. Van Horn. “Ores.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 19 Sept. 2018, https://www.britannica.com/technology/aluminum-processing/Ores.

Specifications. Signify North America Corporation, 2019.

“The Sustainable Material.” The Sustainable Material | Tata Steel in Europe, Tata Steel, https://www.tatasteeleurope.com/en/sustainability/steel–for–a–sustainable–future/sustainable-material.

Turner, Sonji L, et al. Powder Coatings: A Technology Review. Pollution Prevention Review, 1999, https://cfpub.epa.gov/si/si_public_file_download.cfm?p_download_id=488104&Lab=NRMRL.

 “UC Davis Institutional-Level Adaptive Controls for Exterior Lighting.” California Lighting Technology Center, 24 Feb. 2014, https://cltc.ucdavis.edu/publication/uc-davis-institutional-level-adaptive-controls-exterior-lighting.

“What Is Powder Coating? The Pros and Cons - Watson Coatings.” What Is Powder Coating? The Pros and Cons - Watson Coatings, Watson Coatings Inc., 2 Feb. 2016, https://watsoncoatings.com/what-is-powder-coating-pros-cons/.

“Zinc Production & Environmental Impact.” Greenspec, GreenSpec, http://www.greenspec.co.uk/building-design/zinc-production-environmental-impact/.

“Zinc Recycling: Material Supply.” ZINC Sustainability, International Zinc Association, https://www.zinc.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/4/2015/04/RecyclingMaterialSupply_July2015_Final.pdf.

Sydney Marquez

SAS43 Section 01

Professor Cogdell

December 4, 2019

Luminaire Housing Unit: Embodied Energy

In recent years, the California Technology Lighting Center at UC Davis has implemented a new exterior lighting system on campus. Street lights are a crucial part of campus infrastructure as they help keep people safe at night. Signify, previously known as Philips Lighting, are the providers of the Luminaire lighting products. The focus of our group’s research is solely on the housing unit that contains the lighting unit. This paper will examine the processes that account for energy consumption in each step of the life-cycle of a Philips Roadstar Series LED Street Lamp Housing Unit, also known as the Luminaire Housing Unit. It will be shown that the first two phases of the life-cycle–raw materials acquisition and manufacturing, processing, and formulation–are the most energy intensive processes.

The overall acquisition and manufacturing of the main materials each involve several energy intensive processes and are the most energy intensive steps of the life cycle. The main materials that make up the Luminaire Housing Unit are A360 aluminum alloy, zinc-plated steel clamps and hexagonal bolts, and polyester powder coat paint. The metals needed for these materials are mostly aluminum, zinc, and iron. The mining processes vary for each material. Aluminum is mined from bauxite ore, which is usually strip-mined. Land must be cleared prior to mining and the topsoil is stored to be put back later. Then bauxite is taken apart for transport to an alumina refinery. After mining, the topsoil is returned and the area undergoes rehabilitation ("Bauxite"). Zinc is obtained from zinc minerals, which are mostly mined underground ("Zinc Mining and Processing: Everything You Need to Know"). Iron ore is extracted from the ground with magnetic rollers and then sent off to be processed into clumps ("From ore to steel"). 

The handling and transportation of the materials, regardless of whether it was obtained via underground mining or surface mining, are generally similar. Loaders and haulers cyclically handle the loading and hauling functions in systems such as belt and slurry transportation systems, longwall systems, bucket-wheel excavator systems, and mobile crushers connected to conveyor belts ("Read "Evolutionary and Revolutionary Technologies for Mining" at NAP.edu"). Powered vehicles then ship off the material to processing facilities and these vehicles expend energy by burning fossil fuels. As there are so many processes involved, there are high levels of energy consumption overall.

Manufacturing and processing are energy intensive phases and many energy-consuming steps are involved, including the processing of metals, the production of steel and aluminum alloy, die casting, zinc electroplating, bolt making, and powder coat painting. The processing of metals mostly involves heating them at very high temperatures in a furnace and undergoing purification process with chemicals or filtration ("Zinc Mining and Processing: Everything You Need to Know"). Steel is produced by combining iron and coal in a furnace so the energy is spent in the burning of fuel and as heat energy. Aluminum alloys undergo the process of cold working to increase their strength and the energy in this phase is likely more kinetic energy as it is done by a machine (“Aluminum Alloys 101”). Bolt making is also done by a machine so it also uses kinetic energy in the process. The die casting of aluminum has a specific energy index that can be anywhere from 44 to 65 GJ/tonne (Griffiths, Dunne, & Lloyd 1996). In powder coating operations, the energy intensive steps are drying and curing (“POWDER COATING INFORMATION”).

Distribution and transportation is handled by vehicles involved in urban freight distribution, most likely long haul trucks and freight trains for transportation between Philips facilities in America and potentially cargo boats for any overseas transportation. Energy is expended by physical transportation vehicles in the form of fossil fuels and bunker fuel burned as fuel to power the vehicles (“Fuel Oil”). This applies to all the transport vehicles mentioned (“Rail Freight Transport”). Nowadays transportation is fairly quick and the company being extremely large and thus many consumers to serve, it is likely that speed and the optimization of shipments are prioritized and that could contribute to energy savings. Also, since these transportation systems are on such a large scale, there is motivation to be more environmentally conscious and that can also contribute to energy savings.

In the use, re-use, and maintenance phase, minimal energy is used, as the product does not expend any energy to do its job, which is to simply house the lighting unit. Low amounts of energy may be used in its installation and its maintenance but it would be in negligible amounts since it would simply be done by hand by a human and maybe some mechanical tools. The product itself likely would not be reused but its materials can be broken down and reused in the recycling phase.

Recycling is a way to restart the life-cycle of some materials, particularly metals, and it is an energy-efficient way to obtain new materials. Most of the product is made of metal and the powder coating is just a layer on the metals so it simply gets scrubbed off in the cleaning process. The process of recycling has eight steps: collection, sorting, processing, shredding, melting, purification, solidifying of the metal, and transportation (Rinkesh). The process begins with collecting the metals to be recycled and then sorting them to both remove non-recyclable materials and making sure they are good quality. Then the metal must be compacted or squeezed in a machine to reduce their size. The metal is also crushed and broken and then shredded into tiny pieces for further processing (Rinkesh). A large furnace melts the scrap metal and this process is very energy intensive, but still requires less energy than making metal from raw material. After the metals are melted, they must be purified. There are different purification processes depending on the type of metal, such as electrolysis and using powerful magnetic systems (Rinkesh). The metal is then cooled and solidified in a cooling chamber where it becomes a usable material again. The final products are then transported to various factories or consumers, likely using methods covered in the distribution and transportation section (Rinkesh). 

Waste management is generally covered in the recycling phase but anything that may not be recycled may end up left in landfills where nothing is really done to them energy-wise.

Energy is expended in varying amounts in each of the processes included in the life cycle of a Luminaire Housing Unit. Most of the energy consumption is during the beginning phases of material acquisition and material manufacturing and processing. But there is also lots of potential for energy savings in each step of the life cycle. Overall, though the product is fairly simple, there are many energy intensive processes that could be improved upon.

Bibliography

Adoption of Light-Emitting Diodes in Common Lighting Applications. Navigant Consulting, Inc., 2017, https://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2017/08/f35/led-adoption-jul2017_0.pdf. Accessed 18 October 2019.

Alstone, Peter, et al. Embodied Energy and Off-Grid Lighting. No. 9. The Lumina Project, 2011. https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/1050681/. Accessed 18 October 2019.

“Aluminum Alloys 101.” Aluminum Alloys 101 | The Aluminum Association, 24 Oct. 2019, https://www.aluminum.org/resources/industry-standards/aluminum-alloys-101.

“Bauxite.” Bauxite | The Aluminum Association, https://www.aluminum.org/industries/production/bauxite.

“From Ore to Steel.” ArcelorMittal, https://m.corporate.arcelormittal.com/who-we-are/from-ore-to-steel.

“Fuel Oil.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 3 Dec. 2019, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_oil#Bunker_fuel.

Griffiths, A. J., et al. “Energy and the Die Casting Industry.” Energy & Environment, vol. 7, no. 3, 1996, pp. 285–298., doi:10.1177/0958305x9600700304.

Kinematics, General, and General Kinematics: “Zinc Mining and Processing: Everything You Need to Know.” Zinc Mining and Processing: Everything You Need to Know | General Kinematics, https://www.generalkinematics.com/blog/zinc-mining-processing-everything-need-know/amp/.

Institutional-Level Adaptive Control System For Exterior Lighting. California Lighting Technology Center, 2012, https://cltc.ucdavis.edu/sites/default/files/files/publication/uc-davis-spec-networked-adaptive-controls-system.pdf. Accessed 18 October 2019.

Life-Cycle Assessment of Energy and Environmental Impacts of LED Lighting Products. Navigant Consulting, Inc., 2012, https://www1.eere.energy.gov/buildings/publications/pdfs/ssl/2012_LED_Lifecycle_Report.pdf. Accessed 18 October 2019.

Life-Cycle Assessment of Energy and Environmental Impacts of LED Lighting Products. Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, N14 Energy Limited, 2012, https://www.pnnl.gov/main/publications/external/technical_reports/PNNL-21443.pdf. Accessed 24 October 2019.

“Philips Lighting.” Philips Lighting, www.lighting.philips.com/main/support/support/faqs/the-environment/how-are-leds-disposed-recycled. Accessed 24 October 2019.

“POWDER COATING INFORMATION.” Goodbody, https://goodbodyltd.com/powder-coating-information/.

Protecting LED systems in accordance with IEEE & ANSI C62.41.2. Philips Lighting, 2019,  https://www.docs.lighting.philips.com/en_gb/oem/download/xitanium-led-drivers-outdoor/Guidelines_on_Protecting_LED_Systems.pdf. Accessed 24 October 2019.

“Rail Freight Transport.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 31 Oct. 2019, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rail_freight_transport.

“Read ‘Evolutionary and Revolutionary Technologies for Mining’ at NAP.edu.” National Academies Press: OpenBook, https://www.nap.edu/read/10318.

Rinkesh. “What Is Metal Recycling and How to Recycle Metal.” Conserve Energy Future, 25 Dec. 2016, https://www.conserve-energy-future.com/recyclingmetal.php.

“RoadStar - Philips.” Philips Lighting, https://www.assets.lighting.philips.com/is/content/PhilipsLighting/d39d4b1e0f714f22b03fa8810101bb39. Accessed 24 October 2019.

Solid State Lighting Annex: Life Cycle Assessment of Solid State Lighting. International Energy Agency 4E, 2014, https://www.iea-4e.org/document/341/life-cycle-assessment-of-solid-state-lighting-final-report. Accessed 18 October 2019. 

SSL Pricing and Efficacy Trend Analysis for Utility Program Planning. Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, 2013, https://www1.eere.energy.gov/buildings/publications/pdfs/ssl/ssl_trend-analysis_2013.pdf. Accessed 18 October 2019.

Susana Barron

DES 40 Section 01

Topic: UC Davis Pathway Luminaire Housing Unit

11/26/19

UC Davis Luminaire Housing Unit Lifecycle

Focus Area: Waste and Emissions

The California Technology Lighting Center (CTLC) at UC Davis and Lumewave, Inc. have taken a pilot study on institutional-level adaptive control systems for exterior lighting to create real energy savings by integrating the innovative lighting system in over 1,600 luminaires at UC Davis. In addition to the energy savings, this cutting edge lighting technology also reduces light pollution, enhances public safety, reduces maintenance costs, and offers convenient features for system lighting managers (UC Davis, et al.).  

The transition to the adaptive lighting solution required purchasing new luminaire modules that were equipped with motion detectors and central network capabilities. In addition to the adaptive control systems, the light engine in each luminaire contains a high performance LED module that lives inside a housing unit ( LUMEC by Signify). The parameters of our research only encompass the housing unit for the luminaire. My research will show that while the new lighting technology helps to conserve energy, the materials, which include aluminum alloys, steel, copper and zinc have an adverse effect on our environment through the manufacturing, processing and formulation, distribution and transportation of this product.

While there is a lot of research available on the raw materials used to make the housing unit, there is little to no research available on the life-cycle of a housing unit for a roadway luminaire. The complete list of raw materials that make up the luminaire must be considered in assessing its benefits and adverse effects on the environment. My research will show that even though the luminaire boasts energy-saving technology, the housing units used for each system uses manufacturing methods and raw materials that are problematic and unsustainable. When seen as a finished product, the housing unit looks very hi-tech and eco-friendly, but when seen as a combination of raw materials, my research of the luminaire housing unit’s life-cycle will show that the housing unit has a long way to go in order to match the energy-saving technology that it houses.

During the acquisition phase of the raw materials used in the housing unit, there are many adverse effects to the environment, especially for the communities who live near those natural resources. Bauxite, an ore to make aluminum, for example, is mined in many regions where thriving ecosystems exist. The processing of Bauxite creates a toxic red mud that is not easy to dispose of and many times leaches out into communities (CBC News).  Mining procedures are relatively simple since bauxite occurs so close to the earth's surface, but the mining methods are extremely destructive to the surrounding natural habitat. Explosives are used to open up large pits in bauxite beds, for example (How Aluminum Foil Is Made - Material, Manufacture, Making, Used, Processing, Dimensions, Aluminium, Procedure).

 Zinc ores are also extracted with the use of explosives and other invasive methods like drilling and hauling techniques  (How Zinc Is Made - Material, Used, Parts, Components, Composition, Industry, Machine, Applications). Emissions to air occur during all stages, but are especially high during the mining stage (Zinc and Compounds). 

The process of extracting copper from copper ores varies, but is also energy intensive.  The process contains several steps in which unwanted materials are physically or chemically removed, and the concentration of copper is incrementally increased (How Copper Is Made - Material, Used, Processing, Steps, Product, Raw Materials). 

For steel, which is an alloy, substances like iron need to be mined. Potential pollution problems with iron mining include the loss of ecosystems and groundwater and threats from a process known as acid mine drainage.When sulfide materials are exposed to air and waste, they can produce sulfuric acid in the water. Sulfate in rock can leach from mining tailings and can create elevated levels of surface water that’s toxic to the surrounding environment (DNR Identifies Potential Pollution Problems with Iron Mining). 

This is only a preliminary report of the raw materials needed to create a luminaire housing unit and the adverse environmental effects created by the raw materials used to create a luminaire housing unit. More research is needed to create a more robust list of raw materials and the environmental effects of those materials. 

During the manufacturing phase of the raw materials to make the luminaire housing unit, harmful byproducts like Ethanol are often produced. At high concentrations, such as a result of leaks or spills, ethanol can have acute effects on the environment and can cause microbial death. To humans, symptoms of exposure to ethanol may include irritation to the eyes, skin and nose, drowsiness and headache. Other symptoms may include stupor, nausea, mental excitement or depression, vomiting, flushing and coma (Ethanol (Ethyl Alcohol)). 

With the manufacturing of aluminum, human health is especially impacted from consuming coke in the blast furnace and iron ore consumption in the sinter plant.  Significant sources of greenhouse gas emissions also come from coke, coke breeze, coke oven gas and electricity (Burchart-Korol, Dorota). 

With the steel and iron industry being the largest industrial consumer of energy,  it produces around 5% of total world greenhouse gas emissions, some 2,165 million tons (Mt) of carbon dioxide (CO2) per year, and small amounts of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide. This is a result of the resource-intensive production process and the high demand from virtually every country and every sector. With the rising demand, emissions from steelmaking is expected to keep rising (Columbia University, Columbia Climate Center). Almost all of the greenhouse gas emissions associated with steel production are from the carbon dioxide emissions related to energy consumption. Coke production is one of the major pollution sources from steel production. Air emissions are released from coke ovens and water emissions come from the water used to cool coke after it has finished baking (Steel Production & Environmental Impact). 

Zinc also produces byproducts that are harmful to the environment. Similar to mining zinc, the refining of zinc ores produces high levels of emissions. The refining of zinc also produces cadmium, which is a cancer-causing agent . Occupational exposure to higher than normal zinc levels may occur when breathing zinc dust or fumes at various industrial sites. Inhalation of zinc oxide fumes is common in occupational exposures and can damage the respiratory system. (Zinc and Compounds). 

With copper, waste products include the overburdening from the mining operation, the tailings from the concentrating operation, and the slag from the smelting operation. This waste may contain significant concentrations of arsenic, lead, and other chemicals, which pose a potential health hazard (How Copper Is Made - Material, Used, Processing, Steps, Product, Raw Materials).

The use of Fuel for the distribution of the processed raw materials and the final luminaire housing unit is responsible for a lot of harmful environmental releases. It’s not uncommon for the materials to travel far distances before arriving to its final destination. Most of the bauxite ores used  in the United States, for example, come from the West Indies, North America, and Australia (How Aluminum Foil Is Made - Material, Manufacture, Making, Used, Processing, Dimensions, Aluminium, Procedure). As a result of vehicle exhaust, ethanol is produced from the evaporation of vehicle fuels from motors and fuel tanks (Ethanol (Ethyl Alcohol)). Methanol is also present in fuels as a petrol additive. Methanol may affect animals, birds and fish, leading to their death. Exposure can also cause low growth rates in plants. Long term methanol exposure can affect the fertility of biota and affect their appearance or behavior. For humans, exposure to methanol may cause irritation of the eyes, nose, mouth and throat. It can lead to liver damage, cause headaches, cardiac depression, nausea, vomiting, blurred vision, optic nerve damage, dizziness and a feeling of intoxication (Methanol).

It’s also important to look at the use, re-use, and maintenance of the luminaire housing unit. Fortunately, there are many recycling programs  for aluminum already in place (Aluminium’s Lifecycle | About | Hulamin). This is extremely important since recycling aluminium takes only 5% of the energy required for producing the primary metal. Also, aluminium doesn’t deteriorate from recycling (Aluminium Life Cycle). Still, recycling programs are only part of the answer since the demand for aluminum exceeds the recycling capabilities (“Top Five Bauxite Mining Companies in the World”). Similarly, Iron and steel are the world's most recycled materials, and among the easiest materials to reprocess, since they can be separated magnetically from the waste stream (Steel Production & Environmental Impact). Here too, recycling is only part of the solution since there is such an incredibly high demand for steel that makes it impossible for recycling to keep up with. Other materials like zinc can have hazardous effects to the environment when, over time, corrosion of galvanised materials releases zinc into soil and water (Zinc and Compounds). 

New technology like the Lumec RoadStar LED Architectural Roadway Luminaire helps to lead the way into energy reduction over time, but it's important to examine the waste burden that occurs as a consequence of technology change when lighting products are replaced or upgraded (Olmez, Gulnur Maden, et al.). The high demand of raw materials like aluminum places a burden on natural resources and on local communities that depend on those natural resources. Sometimes communities are able to fight back against companies that want to mine for natural resources. In India, for example, a $2 billion project from Vendata Resources that planned to extract 70 million tons of bauxite from the Niyamigiri Hills would have devastated the wild habitat, including the endangered Bengal tigers and Indian elephants. The forested land was also home to the Dongria Kondh tribe. This already vulnerable tribe would have experienced even more pressure by the creation of the mine. Fortunately, a Niyamigiri Hills community leader was able to take Vedanta Resources to court and win (“The Man Who Stopped the Mine. Q&A with Prafulla Samantara, 2017 Goldman Environmental Prize Winner”). Unfortunately, many other communities haven’t been so lucky in being able to fight back against giant corporations trying to extract natural resources. It’s no longer enough to demand change from major companies who are creating environmentally unfriendly products. It’s also up to consumers and especially large consumers like UC Davis to oppose products that continue to use up the finite amount of natural resources and add to the waste created through the manufacturing, processing and formulation, distribution and transportation of products.

Bibliography

Aluminium’s Lifecycle | About | Hulamin, South Africa. https://www.hulamin.com/about/aluminiums-lifecycle. Accessed 11 Nov. 2019.

Aluminium Life Cycle. https://www.hydro.com/en/about-aluminium/aluminium-life-cycle/. Accessed 16 Nov. 2019.

Amini Mashhadi, H., et al. “Recycling of Aluminium Alloy Turning Scrap via Cold Pressing and Melting with Salt Flux.” Journal of Materials Processing Technology, vol. 209, no. 7, Apr. 2009, pp. 3138–42. DOI.org (Crossref), doi:10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2008.07.020.

Burchart-Korol, Dorota. “Life Cycle Assessment of Steel Production in Poland: A Case Study.” Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 54, Sept. 2013, pp. 235–43. ScienceDirect, doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.04.031.

Columbia University, Columbia Climate Center. THE GNCS FACTSHEETS Mitigating Iron and Steel Emissions. 2012, http://climate.columbia.edu/files/2012/04/GNCS-Iron-Steel.pdf.

Copper and Compounds | National Pollutant Inventory. http://www.npi.gov.au/resource/copper-and-compounds. Accessed 16 Nov. 2019.

DNR Identifies Potential Pollution Problems with Iron Mining. http://archive.jsonline.com/news/statepolitics/dnr-identifies-potential-pollution-problems-with-ironmining-b99181448z1-239627941.html/. Accessed 16 Nov. 2019.

Dzombak, Rachel, et al. “Balancing Technological Innovation with Waste Burden Minimization: An Examination of the Global Lighting Industry.” Waste Management, vol. 92, June 2019, pp. 68–74. ScienceDirect, doi:10.1016/j.wasman.2019.04.037.

EPA, and Design for the Environment. Assessing Life-Cycle Impacts in the Wire & Cable Industry Fact Sheet. EPA 744-F-05-004.

Ethanol (Ethyl Alcohol) | National Pollutant Inventory. http://www.npi.gov.au/resource/ethanol-ethyl-alcohol. Accessed 16 Nov. 2019.

Gaustad, Gabrielle, et al. “Design for Recycling.” Journal of Industrial Ecology, vol. 14, no. 2, Apr. 2010, pp. 286–308. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1111/j.1530-9290.2010.00229.x.

Geldermann, Jutta, et al. “An Integrated Scenario Analysis for the Metal Coating Sector in Europe.” Technological Forecasting and Social Change, vol. 74, no. 8, Oct. 2007, pp. 1482–507. ScienceDirect, doi:10.1016/j.techfore.2006.12.002.

How Aluminum Foil Is Made - Material, Manufacture, Making, Used, Processing, Dimensions, Aluminium, Procedure.  http://www.madehow.com/Volume-1/Aluminum-Foil.html. Accessed 16 Nov. 2019.

How Copper Is Made - Material, Used, Processing, Steps, Product, Raw Materials. http://www.madehow.com/Volume-4/Copper.html. Accessed 16 Nov. 2019.

How Zinc Is Made - Material, Used, Parts, Components, Composition, Industry, Machine, Applications. http://www.madehow.com/Volume-2/Zinc.html. Accessed 16 Nov. 2019.

 LUMEC by Signify. Lumec GPLS RoadStar LED Architectural Roadway Luminaire Specifications. Signify North America Corporation, 2019.

Oct 07, CBC News ·. Posted:, et al. “Red Mud: Toxic Waste of Aluminum Refining | CBC News.” CBC, 7 Oct. 2010, https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/red-mud-toxic-waste-of-aluminum-refining-1.906411.

Olmez, Gulnur Maden, et al. “The Environmental Impacts of Iron and Steel Industry: A Life Cycle Assessment Study.” Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 130, Sept. 2016, pp. 195–201. ScienceDirect, doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.09.139.

Poot, Jacques. “Information, Communication and Networks in International Migration Systems.” Annals of Regional Science, vol. 30, no. 1, Mar. 1996, p. 55. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1007/BF01580537.

Steel Production & Environmental Impact. http://www.greenspec.co.uk/building-design/steel-products-and-environmental-impact/. Accessed 16 Nov. 2019.

“The Man Who Stopped the Mine. Q&A with Prafulla Samantara, 2017 Goldman Environmental Prize Winner.” World Resources Institute, 24 Apr. 2017, https://www.wri.org/blog/2017/04/man-who-stopped-mine-qa-prafulla-samantara-2017-goldman-environmental-prize-winner.

“Top Five Bauxite Mining Companies in the World.” Alcircle, https://www.alcircle.com//news/top-five-bauxite-mining-companies-in-the-world-26315. Accessed 11 Nov. 2019.

 UC Davis, et al. UC Davis Institutional-Level Adaptive Controls for Exterior Lighting. Phillips LUMEC, 24 Feb. 2014.

UC Davis, et al. A Guide to Meeting, or Exceeding, California’s 2013 Building Energy Efficiency Standards. Feb. 2015.

UC Davis, et al. Campus-Wide Networked Adaptive LED LightingUC Davis | California Lighting Technology Center. State Partnership for Energy Efficient Demonstrations (SPEED) Program, 23 July 2014.

EPA, and Design for the Environment. Assessing Life-Cycle Impacts in the Wire & Cable Industry Fact Sheet. EPA 744-F-05-004.

Wang, Chunhong. Chassis Structure of LED Lamp. no. CN201320549790U 20130905, CN203249180 (U), 23 Oct. 2013, https://worldwide.espacenet.com/publicationDetails/biblio?FT=D&date=20131023&DB=EPODOC&locale=&CC=CN&NR=203249180U&KC=U&ND=1.

Zinc and Compounds | National Pollutant Inventory. http://www.npi.gov.au/resource/zinc-and-compounds. Accessed 16 Nov. 2019.