Materials Paper

Lisa Wang

Professor Christina Cogdell

DES40A

5 June 2024

Silicone Coated Fiberglass Raw Materials

Glass fabric coated with silicone belongs to a class of specialty composite materials, which combine the inherent strength and heat resistance of glass fibers with the versatile, protective properties of silicone rubber. With its high durability and thermal stability, this fabric finds wide use in industry, in insulation blankets, welding curtains, and protective covers for cables and hoses. The base fabric generally comprises high-strength glass fibers, either E-glass or S-glass, with high mechanical and thermal properties. This strengthens the glass fibers and provides the fabric with flexibility, chemical resistance, and hydrophobic properties for use in demanding environments. The raw materials used determine the performance of the silicone-coated glass fabric and its suitability for various applications. I will argue in this essay that the raw materials used decide the performance of the silicone-coated glass fabric and its suitability for various applications. The materials will be traced through their entire lifecycle, from the sourcing of the glass fibers and silicone, and their uses, to their environmental impacts and how they could contribute toward sustainable development. The application and broad applications of silicone-coated fiberglass are the only topics covered by first-hand research (welding curtains, construction blankets, etc.). It is necessary to improve the potential for these raw materials to be more sustainable, and to improve the up and downstream of lifecycle sourcing and disposal.

The importance of the raw materials used in silicone-coated glass fabric production is because of the huge environmental and functional impacts the materials have. More so, it is important because these materials affect the final product's durability directly, as well as thermal stability and other properties. For example, different types of high-strength glass fibers (E-glass and S-glass) have their arrangements in terms of mechanical and thermal properties, changing the flexibility or chemical resistance of a particular fabric. Silicone-coated glass fabric is used widely in industrial and aerospace applications and combines silicone rubber and woven glass fibers. Silicone rubber has qualities such as flexibility and high resistance to temperature and environmental degradation, while glass fibers provide structural stability and electrical insulation. This combination creates a durable material suitable for challenging environments and high temperatures, making it ideal for demanding technical settings.

The manufacturing process of silicone-coated glass fabric involves many critical stages that determine its final properties and applications. The process begins with the selection of base fabric, most commonly made of E-glass or S-glass fibers. These fibers are best known for high-strength and thermal resistance. This is then coated with silicone rubber, which makes it elastic and durable and also resistant to chemicals. The application process of the silicone coating greatly determines the quality and performance of the fabric and can thus be implemented in different ways, possibly including resin bath-based impregnation. In its manual mode, the potting of the resin and the manual pouring used to mix it can cause many errors. Automation ensures good quality and enhanced control over the properties of the material. A high degree of control in maintaining critical steps in manufacturing is crucial to making silicone glass fabrics of superior quality. The products obtained are well usable in industrial applications for the protection of cables and hoses in severe conditions.

The production of silicone-coated fiberglass fabric requires both primary and secondary raw materials. Primary raw materials include silica sand, limestone, and soda ash, which, when melted and extruded, can make glass fibers. For silicone coating, the important prime material is silicon, derived from quartz or sand. Secondary raw materials include all recycled glass fibers or silicone that can be reused or reprocessed. The recycling process can lessen or reduce the need for primary materials. Recycled glass cullet has the potential to replace up to 30% of the raw materials needed in manufacturing fiberglass. In the same way, off-spec silicone can be reprocessed, reducing the need for fresh silicon in total. The effective combination of primary and secondary raw materials can help manufacturers reduce costs and reduce their environmental impact as well as bring out sustainability in the production of silicone-coated fiberglass fabric.

The environmental impacts of silicone-coated glass fabric come from both the disposal and production of its raw materials. Additionally, we can improve the functionality of silicone-coated glass fabric. This ultimately contributes to more environmentally friendly industrial practices. The sourcing of glass fibers involves the extraction of silica from quartz or sand. The process is energy-intensive and also contributes to environmental degradation (Gardiner). Furthermore, the production also involves chemical processes. These processes can release harmful byproducts and require significant energy consumption. By understanding and optimizing raw materials and manufacturing processes, we can enhance sustainability. To reduce these impacts, exploring sustainable practices is very necessary, some include recycling glass fibers and using eco-friendly silicone substitutes. For example, when researching solvent-free silicone coatings and the development of bio-based polymers could reduce silicone-coated glass fabrics’ environmental footprint. Lifecycle tests of these materials can help identify areas for improvement. This can promote sustainable manufacturing processes and help make them more common.

Further research on silicone-coated glass fabric’s environmental impacts will highlight some crucial issues with both disposal and the production of raw materials. Glass fibers are made by extraction from sand or quartz and are known to be a high-energy use process. It involves a lot of chemical treatments and energy for the production processes of the glass fabric. The processes may release harmful byproducts into the environment. Such environmental issues show the need for sustainable practices throughout the making of silicone-coated glass fabric. A lot can be done to aim for a smaller and reduced environmental footprint, especially for such a versatile material with options, such as recycling glass fibers and developing eco-friendly silicone substitutes. It’s along these lines that research on solvent-free coatings and bio-based polymers shows a smaller environmental impact. To this effect, performing a lifecycle test or assessment of these materials will help in trying to find the weak points that may come up in better practices from the manufacturing (those which are more sustainable). An overall approach that considers the total lifecycle of the silicone-coated fabric, from when it is extracted to its disposal, will be the right push toward an environmentally friendly industrial scape.

Inherent in the study of silicone-coated glass fabric and its raw materials is the disclosure of its unique place and meaning as a composite material, blending the strength and thermal stability of glass fibers with the protective properties of silicone rubber. Inherent in the choice of raw material in its manufacture is the influence not only on the functional performance but also in setting forth the environmental footprint. A study of the material life cycle, from raw material extraction to final disposal, demonstrates the necessity of implementing sustainable resource use strategies. Furthermore, considering the nature and possible uses of the fabric, the fabrication method is significant in this study. The more the understanding of these processes, the more likely it is to identify areas for improvement through the application of sustainable approaches, such as recycling glass fiber or looking for environmentally friendly silicone substitutes, as this study did. This study emphasizes the greater significance of understanding raw materials and manufacturing processes in defining the level of functionality and sustainability across industries, using silicone-coated fabric as a point of reference. From the point of view of the manifestation of such practices, besides the real effect on the environment, it prepares the ground for the coming era of green paradigms. In other words, how material sourcing is done is integrated with how manufacturing is done to enhance and better assure that sustainable outcomes are obtained.

The exploration of silicone-coated glass fabric and its raw materials shows its role and significance for itself as a unique material. It combines the strength and heat resistance of glass fibers with silicone rubber’s protective properties. This analysis shows that raw materials used in its production not only determine its functional benefits but also its environmental impact. Analyzing lifecycle material and what it is, how it's made/extracted, and how it's disposed of, emphasizes the need to have its sourcing more catered towards sustainable development. The manufacturing process is a crucial part of determining the fabric’s qualities and applications. Understanding these processes highlights the potential for improvement through sustainable practices, such as recycling glass fibers and finding eco-friendly alternatives to silicone. The broader implications of this research go beyond the domain of silicone-coated fabric by itself. It brings out the broader importance of understanding raw materials and the manufacturing processes across industries for enhanced functionality and sustainability. By adopting such practices, we not only reduce environmental impact but also pave the way for environmentally friendly practices in general. In other words, this research shows and reminds us how material sourcing is connected to manufacturing methods and environmental sustainability. Not only sustainability but understanding how silicone-coated glass fabric is made and processed is the main idea of the research and plays a huge role in understanding the sustainability it can bring.

Full Bibliography

1. Gardiner, Ginger. “The Making of Glass Fiber.” CompositesWorld, 1 June 2020, www.compositesworld.com/articles/the-making-of-glass-fiber.

2. Jimmy. “The Manufacturing Process of Silicone Coated Fiberglass Fabric.” Jimmy Insulation, 18 Sept. 2023, www.jimmyinsulation.com/the-manufacturing-process-and-considerations-of-silicone-coated-fiberglass-fabric/.

3. Midmountain. “What Is Silicone Glass Fabric and Where Is It Used?” Mid, 26 Feb. 2024, mid-mountain.com/what-is-silicone-glass-fabric-and-where-is-it-used/.

4. Textiles, Suntex High-temp Fiberglass. “How to Distinguish the Advantages and Disadvantages of Silicone Coated Fiberglass Fabric?” LinkedIn, 18 Oct. 2021, www.linkedin.com/pulse/how-distinguish-advantages-disadvantages-/.

5. Awe, Richard W., and Swihart, Terence J. “Silicones for Fabric Coating.” Sage Journals, July 1986, https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/152808378601600101?casa_token=QBv2Sa-38lEAAAAA:BzZOEyr7TDToV7wJS9hWtGstbQrWS7RzuJL15VVOWS89b3LH6Zj9EW4pQg1ruT8oCPRALlkSnv-t.

6. Muller, Johann. “New Silicones for Textile Coating without Solvents.” Sage Journals, April 1993, https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/152808379302200408?casa_token=ydjy3FNfDSsAAAAA:_uSQmZHK43yFoWZHbnST2GwBuMe-6ORbkVsNbD86hfrBNK5_XOsEKMBOarz1yiMetScZhXDrzfmX.

7. “Journal of Textiles, Coloration and Polymer Science.” Journal of Textiles, Coloration and Polymer Science, 2024, jtcps.journals.ekb.eg/.

8. “Clean wet-filament winding - Part 1: design concept and simulations.” Sage Journals, March 22, 2022, https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021998312440474.

9. “Silicone Glass.” Silicone Glass | Material for Tensile Structures | J & J Carter, www.jjcarter.com/silicone-glass. Accessed 2 May 2024.

10. Midmountain. “Silicone Coated Fiberglass: Properties & Applications.” Mid, 22 Feb.2024, mid-mountain.com/silicone-coated-fiberglass-properties-applications/#:~:text=SF%2010%2DNF%3A%20This%20product,that%20protect%20personnel%20and%20equipment.

Tia Fong 

Professor Christina Cogdell 

DES40A 

3 June 2024

Waste & Emissions from SIlicone-Coated Fiberglass

Despite its low-maintenance after implementation, a lot of waste is produced in the making & eventual disposal of silicone coated fiberglass composites. Recent developments in manufacturing & recycling methods help to lower the solid & waterborne waste in all stages of the product system, but airborne wastes still remain, especially in distribution. The following paper will discuss these in the six stages in its life cycle. 

RAW MATERIALS ACQUISITION

Silicone-coated fiberglass requires raw materials & separate processing for the silicone coating & glass respectively. There are several ways to extract the silica necessary to formulate the silicone coating, all of which have the potential to release copper, lead, poly-fluoroaklkyl substances (PFAS), and Tributyltin (TBT). Most common methods of silica extraction are: dredging, quarry mining, and open pit mining.

The displacement of silt from bodies of water in dredging can lower surrounding water quality. Heavy metals (like cadmium, mercury, lead), benthic substrates, Tributyltin (TBT), and other water-borne pollutants can leach into the water, suffocating aquatic organisms and blocking sunlight for photosynthetic organisms. Beyond ecological effects, this water pollution also has heavy implications for the fishing industry with dying fish populations. The physical embodiment & smell of decaying matter in & around bodies of water can also decrease the aesthetic value for recreational activities. Contamination spills on dredging sites further increase risk & impact by releasing even more TBT, heavy metals, plastics, acid sulfate soils (ASS) and petroleum products into the water. Exposure of these acid sulfate soils to open air creates an acidic environment with minerals (like aluminum & iron) polluting soil & water. Machinery leaves behind additional fuels, oil, and lubricants in the water and releases combustion gas & displaced dust above water that decrease air quality levels. Vibrations & noise pollution from machinery can be disruptive or disorienting to organisms and cannot be contained.

On land, quarries & open pit mining displace sediment layers, causing the loss of topsoil & vegetation. Quarries risk acid mine drainage (AMD) where exposed sulfate ores interact with oxygen or water and can drain acid & remnants of heavy metals into bodies of water. Silica dust that is created from mining can cause lung cancer, silicosis, or COPD in staff operating machinery. In open pit mining, the bauxite dust often found nearby is distinctly red (Aziz).

To create the glass-fiber base, river sand mining is the most common method with techniques specific to: channel wide instream mining, wet pit excavation, dry pit excavation, bar excavation, and bar skimming. All types disturb sediment in water, create plumes that crush organisms & block light, release heavy metals, and erode the river banks. This creates a loss of not only habitats but also agricultural land as the soil becomes nutrient-deficient. Excavators and scrapers spill oil and exhaust fumes (Rentier). In a study done in North Central Nigeria, high concentrations of lead, nickel, arsenic, cadmium, silver, copper, and mercury were found in mining sites (Ako). In their water supply, levels of manganese, iron, zinc, and magnesium were far above the WHO standards (Kemgang). In India, mining sites also have traces of cobalt and tin in their soil. Their water was contaminated with more sulfate & iron, bauxite dust that stained a reddish-orange, and AMD with a pH of 2-3 (Saviour).

The primary raw materials of silicone-coated glass are ecologically costly to gather. It involves a great amount of machinery that emits both air & water-borne pollutants. The displacement of sediment on land or in water causes heavy metals & acids to leach into surrounding waters and impact its organisms & humans residing nearby.

MANUFACTURING, PROCESSING AND FORMULATION

Manufacturing of silicone-coated glass takes shape in three stages: glass-making, silicone synthesis, and final formulation. 

Glass-making involves blasting sand with heat using gas or oil powered furnaces. Depending on the exact formula & temperature reached, particulate matter (PM), sulfur oxides, carbon monoxides, and fluorides get released into the air and are high risk for glass-makers. For gas-powered furnaces in particular, high levels of nitrogen oxide, and carbon dioxide are released and must be filtered out of the air (Gardiner). However, there are a few methods to recover & reuse these gasses that redirect airflow. Maintenance for furnaces is minimal, just needing to replace fabric filters & replacing clogged nozzles as needed (“11.13 Glass Fiber Manufacturing.”). Glass fibers are often mixed with resin and can be added in one of two ways: wet filament winding or clean wet-filament winding. Traditionally, wet filament winding creates a lot more waste including absorbent paper & solvents for cleaning equipment, disposable containers to mix resin, extra drums to cure excess resin for disposal, and the solidified leftover resin mix. Clean wet-filament winding separates the resin formula from the hardener, so only the amounts needed are mixed and minimizes excess solid waste. However, it does require disposable containers to transfer from their separate reservoir. Static mixers & custom gear pumps & manifold pipes for dispensing can be reused but must be maintained (Pandita). When cooling & drying molten glass, its byproducts include glass fiber particles, resin particles, and hydrocarbons (like phenols & aldehydes). Final touches require trimming of the glass fiber both before and after surface treatment (Pandita). Studies conducted in a Thailand glass microfiber factory reported high levels of glass microfiber dust, ammonia, sodium hydroxide, phenol, formaldehyde, and sulfuric acid in the air. In all stages of production from stringing to cutting to packing, factory workers are at high risk for respiratory distress, wheezing, asthma, and skin irritations from inhaling these pollutants (Sripaiboonkij). 

Synthesizing silicone is a more direct process and with new formulations coming out, there are now several ways to do so. With chlorine as the most widely used intermediary, silicone’s direct synthesis produces polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB), dioxins pesticides, and gaseous forms of hydrochloric acid & chloromethane. Methods have been developed to recover & reuse chloride ions to fuel later production processes. Alternatively, hydrosilylation reactions create no byproducts (Chandra).

Finally, when these secondary raw materials are fabricated, they can be layered together to create silicone-coated fiberglass. Silicone dissolved in toluene or xylene creates offgassing as a knife applies a layer. Excess silicone on the knife and extra glass fiber is disposed of. The knife itself must be periodically sharpened & replaced to ensure a smooth, even layer. Wrinkling & folding in the fabric creates misaligned & miscut pieces that cannot be used (Schwark). 

Traditionally, a lot of the waste from the production stage comes from excess or defective materials. With modern technology, manufacturers are able to reduce that waste in all three stages and reuse a lot of the emissions from heating equipment. 

DISTRIBUTION & TRANSPORTATION 

Despite the improvements noted in earlier sections & reusable packaging, the emissions from transport vehicles & machinery remain constant across the entire life cycle of silicone-coated glass fiber. 

At each transitional point, loading the extracted primary raw material for glass leaves sand dust & particles on the ground & in the area. Remedies for this is to enclose sand in containers with added filters to circulate air through or wet the collected material to weigh particles down. Emissions from railcars, trucks, and drag shovels to move the sand include carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, particulate matter, and volatile organic compounds (“11.13 Glass Fiber Manufacturing”). 

The mandrel tubes used to transport fabricated glass fiber are sturdy enough to be reused but require repackaging with Mylar after each use. Its orientation is also important and requires hoisting cranes & lifters to load & unload from cargo to maintain its horizontal position (Hendrikus).

Liquid silicone can be stored in reusable steel drums but run the risk of spills that need to be cleaned up using single-use polypropylene mats & pads, treated cellulose fiber, ground corn cobs, and expanded clay absorbents (Chandra). These are transported in less-than-truckload freight shipping (LTL) to an air freight for long-distance transport. Uncured forms are refrigerated, creating chlorofluorocarbon emissions (“Uncured Silicone Materials Shipping and Shelf Life”). Solid forms are shipped in unrefrigerated multi-use wooden boxes in LTL. 

Fully fabricated silicone-coated glass is rolled into a single-use polybag and carted on pallets for transport onto freight shipping. Workers must be protected from PM emissions in warehouses through ventilation & filtration of the air. Filters must be periodically replaced (“Silicone-Coated Fiberglass Safety Data Sheet”).

Because of the multi-use nature of a lot of the packaging, the majority of transport & distribution waste come from the type of fuel used to power vehicles & machinery.

USE, RE-USE AND MAINTENANCE

Because silicone is flame resistant, flexible, weather resistant, and structurally supported by glass, there is little maintenance to maintain functionality of silicone-coated fiberglass. Experiments demonstrate the resilience of silicone with data showing little degradation in tensile & compressive strength over 20 years of exposure. In extreme hot conditions, cracking or discoloration / microbial growth may occur (Oldfield). This small erosion can result in silica, formaldehyde, carbon monoxide, and silicone dioxide particles in the air (Chandra).

There are a few alterations that can be made after installation. Top coats can be added to cancel out the silicone’s attraction to dust & dirt but may crease & fold material (Schwark). Spot repairs can also be done if needed. If the fiberglass inside is damaged, the microscopic cracks can get worse over time, especially in hot & wet conditions, and risk replacement of the entire unit. If it’s contained, the damaged portion can be cut out and resin can be injected in the cavity. This leaves behind pieces of the damaged glass and excess resin (“Repair Technology”). In repairing the silicone coating, silicone patch methods leave behind the damaged silicone, excess cured silicone patch edges, and excess adhesive such as silicone RTV-108 Adhesive (“Silicone Patching Methods: Temperature-Based Silicone Repair”).

The low-maintenance nature of silicone helps to make the overall material very resilient and the glass offers a rigid structure to form around. Small amounts of waste may be created from natural erosion of silicone or glass / coating repairs. 

RECYCLE 

The heterogeneous nature of silicone-coated fiberglass makes separating the secondary raw materials difficult. As of June 2024, there is no documented process to separate silicone from glass fiber and the material is listed as unrecyclable (“Silicone-Coated Fiberglass Safety Data Sheet”). The following analysis is developed in anticipation of such developments. 

When recycling glass fiber, it is noted that “several tons of material never reach the appropriate recycling channels due to lack of investment and resources” (Gonçalves). However, when it is sorted properly, there are a few methods to separate the resin from the glass fibers while maintaining most of the structural integrity of the fibers. In pyrolysis, the gas & oil byproducts can be reused to fuel further pyrolysis or become a raw material for resins. Additional processing to regenerate fiber strength can be done using chemical etching and post-salinization, but will leave condensed silane deposition, leftover resin, and carbon dioxide as waste with hydrocarbon byproducts to be recaptured & reused (Yang). Steam baths separate the fibers from fillers, paints, & fasteners with little integrity for these byproducts to be reused. Solvolysis emits heat and leaves behind any leftover solvent from hydrolysis, glycolysis, or acid digestion (Gonçalves). The repair & reuse of glass fiber minimizes the waste that can come from this secondary raw material. 

To recycle silicone, there is comparatively much more waste. Mechanically grinding silicone using a reusable silicon carbide wheel can produce vulcanized powder but also volatile organic compounds, particulate matter, and hazardous air pollutants like toluene, aniline, carbon disulfide, and methylene chloride (Ghosh). Alternatively, the solvothermal alcoholysis method has more unique byproducts. Without a catalyst, alkyl siloxane powder is leftover, and with a catalyst, post catalyst residues are leftover. The heating reactors in this step emit particulate matter & nitrous oxide gas. Depolymerization in the steam autoclaves leaves behind aromatic organic wastes and when done on a large scale, emits toxic gas from the sodium / potassium fluoride reaction. Finally, the filtration & distillation process leaves behind any contaminants like dielectric fluids that must be disposed of. 

The structure for recycling and reusing each secondary raw material exists. The missing step here to develop a circular life cycle for silicone-coated glass is in the separation of the two.

WASTE MANAGEMENT

There are two ways silicone-coated glass can be treated at the end of the life cycle: being sent to a landfill or being incinerated. 

In a landfill, silicone will naturally degrade into the air as silanol terminated oligomers and as silica, water, and carbon dioxide into the soil. There have been no observable impacts to the environment, or waste processing factories (Graiver). It is not the same case for glass fiber. Here, waste colonialism can risk the health of surrounding neighborhoods. A 1994 investigation of a glass fiber dump in Incheon, South Korea correlates rates of cancer & levels of glass fiber. 54 ground samples for 6 houses were found to have calcium carbonate, demonstrating water contamination, but unable to point to glass for the cause (Lee).

Incineration also creates hazardous byproducts like carbon monoxide and other gasses from the furnace. Burning glass fibers release formaldehyde, nitric oxide, ammonia, and hydrogen cyanide (Kinsella). Burning silicone creates carbon dioxide, water, and amorphous silica (Chandra). Together, silicone-coated glass is marked with a warning for releasing hydrocarbon gasses and leaves the landfill as the only option. 

Neither method presents an opportunity to reuse byproducts and instead, produces toxic chemicals & gasses that risk the health of workers & the surrounding environment. 

CONCLUSION 

The properties of silicone-coated glass make it an enticing material for building low-maintenance exteriors, but the long-term impact on the environment to fabricate it and to eventually tear it down paints a duller picture. Technology has advanced to help mitigate the emissions of the machinery, upcycle the byproducts of fabrication, and extend the lifespan of this material but there is still a significant amount of waste & emissions that come from silicone-coated glass. Just because the maintenance is low, it doesn’t mean that the ecological investment is too. 

Bibliography 

“11.13 Glass Fiber Manufacturing.” AP-42: Compilation of Air Emissions Factors from Stationary Sources, Fifth ed., Vol. I, Environment Protection Agency, 1985, https://www3.epa.gov/ttnchie1/ap42/ch11/final/c11s13.pdf. 

Ako, A. T., et al. “Environmental Effects of Sand and Gravel Mining on Land and Soil in Luku, Minna, Niger State, North Central Nigeria.” Science and Education Publishing, 2014, https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.12691/jgg-2-2-1. 

Aziz, Hamidi Abdul, et al. “Dredging and mining operations, management, and environmental impacts.” Handbook of Environmental Engineering, 14 Jan. 2024, pp. 333–396, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-46747-9_8. 

Chandra, G., et al. “The silicone industry and its environmental impact.” The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry, 1997, pp. 295–319, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-68331-5_12. 

Dehghan, Alireza, et al. “Recycled glass fiber reinforced polymer additions to Portland Cement Concrete.” Construction and Building Materials, vol. 146, Aug. 2017, pp. 238–250, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.04.011. 

Development of Emission Factors for the Rubber Manufacturing Industry, Volume 4: Emission Factor Application Manual. Final Report, prepared for the Rubber Manufacturers Association (RMA) by TRC Environmental Corporation, Lowell, MA, May 1995. 

“Fibers for polymer matrix composites.” Composite Materials for Aircraft Structures, Third Edition, 14 Sept. 2016, pp. 77–110, pp. 239-401, https://doi.org/10.2514/5.9781624103261.0077.0110. 

Gardiner, Ginger. “The Making of Glass Fiber.” CompositesWorld, www.compositesworld.com/articles/the-making-of-glass-fiber. Accessed 2 May 2024. 

Ghosh, Arun, et al. “Recycling of silicone rubber waste: Effect of ground silicone rubber vulcanizate powder on the properties of silicone rubber.” Polymer Engineering & Science, vol. 43, no. 2, Feb. 2003, pp. 279–296, https://doi.org/10.1002/pen.10024. 

Gonçalves, R. M., et al. “Recycling of reinforced glass fibers waste: Current status.” Materials, vol. 15, no. 4, 21 Feb. 2022, p. 1596, https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15041596. 

Graiver, D., et al. Journal of Polymers and the Environment, vol. 11, no. 4, Oct. 2003, pp. 129–136, https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1026056129717. 

Hendrikus, Wilhelmus  Maria Paulus Friederichs, et al. Mandrel and Method for Manufacturing Substantially Cylindrical Shaped Objects. 13 Oct. 2016. 

“Joining of Composite Structures.” Composite Materials for Aircraft Structures, Third Edition, 14 Sept. 2016, pp. 289-366, https://doi.org/10.2514/5.9781624103261.0077.0110. 

Kemgang Lekomo, Ypolit, et al. “Assessing impacts of sand mining on water quality in toutsang locality and design of Waste Water Purification System.” Cleaner Engineering and Technology, vol. 2, June 2021, p. 100045, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clet.2021.100045. 

Kinsella, Karen, et al. “Thermal decomposition products of fiberglass composites: A Fourier transform infrared analysis.” Journal of Fire Sciences, vol. 15, no. 2, Mar. 1997, pp. 108–125, https://doi.org/10.1177/073490419701500203. 

Lee, Kang-Kun, et al. “Evaluation of groundwater contamination from glass fiber dumping at Gozan-dong, Incheon, Korea.” Environmental Pollution, vol. 104, no. 3, Mar. 1999, pp. 459–468, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0269-7491(98)00165-1. 

Oldfield, D., and T. Symes. “Long term natural ageing of silicone elastomers.” Polymer Testing, vol. 15, no. 2, 1996, pp. 115–128, https://doi.org/10.1016/0142-9418(95)00018-6. 

Pandita S, Irfan M, Machavaram V, et al. Clean wet-filament winding – Part 1: design concept and simulations. Journal of Composite Materials. 2013;47(3):379-390. doi:10.1177/0021998312440474.

Pandita, Surya D., et al. “The Recovery, Reprocessing and Reuse of Waste Glass Fibre Fabrics: ‘Closed-Loop Recycling.’” July 2013.

Petrus, Rafał, et al. “Solvothermal alcoholysis method for recycling high-consistency silicone rubber waste.” Macromolecules, vol. 54, no. 5, 19 Feb. 2021, pp. 2449–2465, https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.macromol.0c02773. 

“Properties of Composite Systems.” Composite Materials for Aircraft Structures, Third Edition, 14 Sept. 2016, pp. 239-286, https://doi.org/10.2514/5.9781624103261.0077.0110. 

Rentier, E.S., and L.H. Cammeraat. “The environmental impacts of river sand mining.” Science of The Total Environment, vol. 838, 10 Sept. 2022, p. 155877, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.155877. 

“Repair Technology .” Composite Materials for Aircraft Structures, Third Edition, 14 Sept. 2016, pp. 369-401, https://doi.org/10.2514/5.9781624103261.0077.0110. 

Saviour, M. Naveen. “ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF SOIL AND SAND MINING: A REVIEW .” International Journal of Science, Environment and Technology, vol. 1, 2012, pp. 135–134. 

Schwark, Joanne, and Johann Müller. “High performance silicone-coated textiles: Developments and applications.” Journal of Coated Fabrics, vol. 26, no. 1, July 1996, pp. 65–77, https://doi.org/10.1177/152808379602600107. 

“Silicone Patching Methods: Temperature-Based Silicone Repair.” Mosites Rubber Company, 1 Dec. 2023, www.mositesrubber.com/technical-resources/silicone-rubber-technical-info/repair-methods-for-silicone/. 

Silicone-Coated-Fiberglass-Safety-Data-Sheet. ..., www.mcallistermills.com/sites/default/files/Silicone-Coated-Fiberglass-Safety-Data-Sheet.pdf. Accessed 2 May 2024. 

Sims, Bryan, et al. Process for Separating Fibres from Composite Materials. 9 Apr. 1997. 

Sripaiboonkij, Penpatra, et al. “Respiratory and skin health among glass microfiber production workers: A cross-sectional study.” Environmental Health, vol. 8, no. 1, 18 Aug. 2009, https://doi.org/10.1186/1476-069x-8-36. 

“Uncured Silicone Materials Shipping and Shelf Life.” Mosites Rubber Company, 1 Dec. 2023, www.mositesrubber.com/technical-resources/shipping-uncured-silicone/#:~:text=It%20is%20recommended%20that%20uncured,the%20airport%20to%20final%20destination. 

Yang, L., et al. “Can thermally degraded glass fibre be regenerated for closed-loop recycling of thermosetting composites?” Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing, vol. 72, May 2015, pp. 167–174, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2015.01.030. 

Zhu, Siqi. An Automated Method for the Layup of Fiberglass Fabric, Iowa State University, United States -- Iowa, 2015. ProQuest, https://www.proquest.com/dissertations-theses/automated-method-layup-fiberglass-fabric/docview/1765412806/se-2.