Design Life-Cycle
assess.design.(don't)consume
Madeleine Oesterer
DES 40A
Professor Cogdell
June 1, 2024
The Raw Materials of the Pirelli Formula 1 Tire
Formula racing is a sport that showcases advanced engineering and performance, with tires playing a crucial role in a car's performance. Pirelli Formula 1 tires undergo a complex journey from material sourcing to disposal, with closely guarded recipes for the six different compounds; however there is not much information on the compositional difference so for this paper the Formula 1 Tire shall be considered as a singular product. This paper focuses on the raw materials of Formula 1 tires, exploring their stages in the tire's lifespan including sourcing, production, use, and disposal. Materials such as natural rubber, synthetic rubber, kevlar, carbon threads, steel, nitrogen, and other additives are examined to highlight the full life cycle of Pirelli tires and their sustainability implications in Formula 1 racing.
Natural rubber from the Hevea Brasiliensis tree in tropical regions like Southeast Asia is crucial for Pirelli Formula 1 tires. The extraction process starts with the tapping of the tree, a method where incisions are made in the bark to allow latex to flow out and then be collected into containers. Raw latex is then subjected to coagulation, often using assets to form it into a solid mass, which is then washed, homogenized, and dried (“Natural Rubber at a Glance”). Natural rubber is used in the tread, sidewalls, and internal layers of the tire, providing elasticity, grip, and resilience to withstand lateral forces and impacts.
Synthetic rubber is also used to manufacture Formula 1 tires. Synthetic rubber includes various different polymers such as styrene-butadiene copolymer, polybutadiene, and bromobutyl, which each have unique properties enhancing different aspects of the tire performance. Styrene-butadiene rubber is derived from petroleum and is produced through a process of polymerization of styrene and butadiene (“Styrene-Butadiene Latex: SB Latex Copolymers: Mallard Creek Polymers”). Styrene-butadiene rubber contributes to a balance between wear resistance and grip. Polybutadiene is particularly important in racing tires as one of its properties is its low heat buildup (Massey). Which when in high speed duress of Formula 1 racing comes in handy. Its synthesization process is similar, a polymerization process involving the monomer butadiene. Bromobutyl rubber is a type of butyl rubber that includes bromine for added stability (“Exxon Bromobutyl”), and is used in the inner lines of tubeless tires because of its exceptional air impermeability.
Another material used in Formula 1 tires is silica. Silica is a mineral derived mostly from quartz sand. This silicon dioxide is typically extracted through mining and then processed in order to create a fine, pure powder suitable for all types of industrial applications (Mohammad). In tires specifically, silica is incorporated into the rubber compound for the tread. Its inclusion enhances a tire’s performance by improving its grip, most notably in wet conditions. Silica also aids in maintaining an optimal tire temperature, enhancing durability and consistency in performance.
Carbon black, a fine black powder derived from the incomplete combustion of heavy petroleum products like coal tar or ethylene cracking tar, is a key material used in tire rubber. It is derived from the process of burning hydrocarbons in a controlled environment in order to produce a high carbon content residue (da Costa Labanca). It serves as a reinforcing filler to enhance tire durability, strength, resistance to abrasion, and thermal conductivity, improving performance and longevity. It also helps distribute heat evenly across the tire, preventing overheating and ensuring consistent grip and handling on the road.
Tires require strength and durability, which is why kevlar and carbon threads are crucial. Kevlar is a synthetic aromatic polyamide polymer with exceptional strength and resistance to heat, ideal for reinforcing tire sidewalls. It is produced through a process that starts with the polymerization of aniline and terephthaloyl chloride, resulting in poly-para-phenylene terephthalamide. This polymer is then made into fibers using a solution spinning process (Algahtani). Carbon fibers, derived from polyacrylonitrile or PAN, are used for structural integrity. PAN is treated to oxidation and carbonization at extremely high temperatures to form tightly interlocked carbon chains (“How Is Carbon Fiber Made?”) of fibers. In Formula 1 tires, both kevlar and carbon fibers are used in belts and carcass layers to maintain shape and structure under extreme conditions.
Steel beads are vitally important to its structural integrity. Steel is an alloy that is primarily composed of iron and carbon, along with small amounts of other elements that enhance its properties. These other elements usually include manganese, chromium, vanadium, and tungsten. It is produced by smelting iron ore in a blast furnace, removing its impurities and adding carbon. The process starts with mining the iron ore, and then melting it at high temperatures to separate the iron from the ore. The iron is even further processed in a basic oxygen furnace where it is combined with carbon and the other elements to create steel (Luecke). The tire bead is a part of the tire that sits on the wheel (Silvestro). The steel beads ensure a tight fit between a tire and its rim, ensuring its structural integrity is able to handle the forces and speeds of Formula 1 racing.
Formula 1 tires are inflated with dry nitrogen, a colorless gas that makes up 78% of the Earth's atmosphere. Nitrogen is extracted through fractional distillation of liquefied air, separating it from oxygen and other gasses. This process is reliant on their different boiling points. The larger molecular size of nitrogen compared to oxygen reduces permeability through tire walls, maintaining stable pressure and improving overall performance (“Why Are Formula 1 Tyres Filled with Nitrogen?”). An additional benefit of using nitrogen is that it's devoid of moisture, unlike compressed air, so even under the extreme conditions of a race there is reduced risk of pressure and performance fluctuations.
In addition to these materials that are used in physical components of a Formula 1 tire there are also materials that are used during its processing and manufacturing. Sulfur is one of these raw materials. Sulfur is a naturally occurring element often recognized for its bright yellow color and distinctive smell when burned. It is found in its elemental form as part of various minerals and also in volcanic emissions. Sulfur is extracted through the Frasch process, in which superheated water and air are injected into underground deposits in order to melt the sulfur, which then surfaces in liquid form. Sulfur is a key ingredient used in the vulcanization process, a chemical reaction between sulfur and rubber polymer that fundamentally changes the properties of that rubber (Martin-Martinez). By adding sulfur, the rubber becomes more cross-linked, enhancing its elasticity, durability, and heat resistance.
Additives such as antioxidants, vulcanizing accelerators, and activators are also used in the manufacturing of Formula 1 tires. Antioxidants, derived from petroleum, work to prevent the degradation of rubber during the mixing process and help protect the tires against sidewall cracking which is usually caused by sunlight and environment exposure. These compounds are usually synthesized through various complex chemical reactions involving petroleum-based products. Vulcanizing accelerators and activators on the other hand, work to improve the elasticity and strength of the rubber. A primary activator used is zinc oxide, which is mined as zinc ore then purified and processed into a fine powder. Zinc oxide is a catalyst, speeding up the reaction between the sulfur and the rubber during vulcanization, which results in a more durable and resilient tire (Kołodziejczak-Radzimska).
In the manufacturing process of tires, all of the raw materials are processed to create the final product. First the natural and synthetic rubbers, along with the other additives and sulfur and accelerants, are mixed in a process known as compounding. Once the rubber compound is made, it is fed into an extruder where it is formed into long continuous strips of rubber known as gum rubber. The strips are then sliced and shaped into the tire’s tread, sidewalls, and inner liners through calendaring and molding processes (“How a Tire Is Made”). Then other materials are incorporated to enhance the structural integrity and performance of the tire. Steel beads are placed between the tread’s layers of rubber to maintain the shape of the tire. The fibers are used in the tire's carcass, sidewalls, and bead areas. The layers are bonded together through a combination of heat, pressure, and adhesives.
The first stage of distribution and transportation is the moving of the base materials. The more hazardous a material, the more specialized its form of distribution. Natural rubber is transported in wooden or standard shipping containers lined with a protective plastic (“Natural Rubber at a Glance”). For liquid latex concentrates, tank containers are utilized. Packaging materials like plastic sheeting and synthetic bags are used to prevent damage and contamination during transit. Synthetic rubber is transported in drums, intermediate bulk containers, or flexible intermediate bulk containers that are made of materials like high density polyethylene or steel. Nitrogen gas is transported and stored in high pressure cylinders or tanks specifically designed for compressed gasses. The cylinders are designed for strict safety standards to prevent leaks as well as ensure integrity (“Why Are Formula 1 Tyres Filled with Nitrogen?”). Sulfur is transported in specialized containers designed for hazardous material to prevent leakage (Martin-Martinez). Kevlon carbon threads, as well as steel are more durable, so their containers tend to be less specialized.
As Pirelli Formula 1 tires are made for a very specific purpose, Formula 1 races, there are a variety of methods to transport their tires to their desired location. However they are usually put in shipping containers which go by truck, intermodal, air or sea freight depending on the race location, aiming to arrive well before the race date (“Pirelli Tire”).
As already discussed, many of the materials used to produce Formula 1 tires are utilized to enhance its durability, as well as its lifespan which links directly into the tire’s maintenance. Another aspect of tire maintenance is ensuring that the tires are properly stored. Tires must be stored in a cool, dry, and dark environment out of direct sunlight to prevent premature degradation of the rubber compounds (“Safety First, How to Take Care of Your Tyres”). The storage space must be far from sources of heat and humidity to mitigate the risk of rubber deterioration. The storage space must be clean, and well ventilated, away from chemicals that may contaminate the tires surface properties or adhesion.
Unfortunately Formula 1 tires, although Pirelli strives to maximize their lifespan, are destined to burn bright and die fast. Due to the extreme conditions of the race, which are unavoidable in the sport, the high-speed driving significantly wears down the tires and exposes them to great heat. This leads to the rapid degradation and deterioration of the rubber compounds. Also because of processes like vulcanization, attempting to reuse formula 1 tires as regular tires or even as newer Formula 1 tires again, would pose significant safety risks and performance issues, making them unsuitable for direct reuse in regards to automotive transportation (“What Happens to Tires Used in the F1 Grand Prix?”).
While many of the materials contribute to the tires performance, they can complicate the recycling process. Vulcanization makes the rubber more resistant to heat and wear making them significantly more challenging to break down for rubber recycling. As a result, conventional recycling methods can be ineffective for tires with high sulfur content (“What Happens to Tires Used in the F1 Grand Prix?”). The added presence of the synthetic rubber compounds also further complicates recycling efforts. As they are derived from petroleum-based sources, the synthetic materials will not break down or degrade in a traditional recycling process.
The waste part of the Formula 1 tire life cycle includes both environmental challenges and opportunities. A typical race weekend consumes around 1,500 tires and Pirelli produces approximately 40,000 Formula 1 specific tires annually (“What Happens to Tires Used in the F1 Grand Prix?”). Tire waste management is crucial. Pirelli, as the sole producer of F1 tires, takes responsibility for managing the disposal of the used ones. They are currently recycling them into tired fuel. The used tires also work to power concrete kilns, reducing their reliance on coal. As innovation in the tire industry continues, more research on environmentally friendly options such as powdered rubber for asphalt, rubber mats, and playground surfaces are becoming available. Pirelli claims to be continuing to research and pioneer more sustainable practices entering that the legacy of Formula 1 tires doesn't end at the finish line.
The journey of Pirelli Formula 1 tires from raw material extraction to end-of-life disposal is a complex process that involves a variety of materials and manufacturing techniques. Despite the challenges in recycling due to their specialized construction and materials, efforts are being made to repurpose these tires for sustainable applications. Understanding the full lifecycle of Formula 1 tires highlights the intersection of advanced engineering and environmental considerations in motorsport.
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Kołodziejczak-Radzimska, Agnieszka, and Teofil Jesionowski. “Zinc Oxide-from Synthesis to Application: A Review.” PubMed Central, U.S. National Library of Medicine, 9 Apr. 2014, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5453364/#:~:text=In%20the%20indirect%20(French)%20process,at%20a%20bag%20filter%20station.
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“Safety First, How to Take Care of Your Tyres.” Pirelli, Pirelli, 25 May 2021, www.pirelli.com/global/en-ww/road/cars/tyres/safety-first-how-to-take-care-of-your-tyres-52171/.
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Cierra Mae Venzon
1 June 2024
DES 40A
Embodied Energy Research Paper
On Track for Energy Reduction: Embodied Energy of Pirelli Formula 1 Tires
Tires play a crucial role in the success of a Formula 1 race, and their partnership with Pirelli aid them towards their goals on and off track. Both companies have been open about their carbon emissions and their new goal of going Net Zero Carbon by 2030, with the collaboration of other companies for support as well. Off track, the tires go through meticulous research to make sure that their tires will continue to reduce their energy outputs throughout each step of their life cycles.
In February of 2024, it was announced that Formula 1 will begin using Pirelli tires that are FSC certified. The FSC certification for this means that the rubber used for manufacturing the tires have to comply with criteria given by the Forest Stewardship Council, a nonprofit organization that looks at sustainable forestry. This makes sure that the company has complete awareness of where their materials come from, starting from the plantations and up the supply chain to the manufacturers and suppliers.
Rubber makes up 40% to 60% of the tires composition- 10% of that is Natural Rubber and the remaining percentage is Synthetic Rubber. Natural Rubber is harvested from trees that regenerate themselves. Production of the Natural Rubber and fertilizers for the trees emit the most greenhouse gasses at this point.
Synthetic Rubber on the other hand is made from crude oil, which will emit 10.3 grams for every megajoule produced. This releases carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide into the atmosphere. Carbon Black, used to improve tire wear and traction, is another material in the production of tires that use either petroleum oil or coal oil to combust and produce. Steel beads are also needed, but to produce steel it takes mostly coal, gas, and electricity. The iron and steel industry makes up 11% of the global carbon dioxide emissions, and in 2022 1.41 tonnes of CO2 was emitted to produce 1 ton of steel.
Pirelli is responsible for creating different compounds that can sustain different track and weather conditions through their season. Formula 1 cars are required to make one to three pit stops per race, resulting in a mass amount of tires needed. On average Pirelli creates about 40,000 tires for one race season, and 16,000 of them are used just for one race weekend. Pirelli has a dedicated motorsports tire factory in Romania and another one in Turkey. To manufacture one of these tires, it takes approximately 74 million Btu of energy per short ton of tire produced.
After the cultivation of the raw materials, they are then transported to different factories to start the process of creating rubber. They first mix all of the raw materials to combine them using an internal mixer machine. It consumes about 2.6 million kWh per year. The mixed compound is extracted into strips of rubber that they can now use for different parts of the tire. In this process the rubber is being shaped and molded depending on the portion of the tire they need to make. The last step of manufacturing the tire is the vulcanization process, in which they cure the tire to become a harder compound. They heat up the tire to 153- 180°C and use an agent that will then change the properties of the rubber then it will be ready to use. 15-1700 g/h of gas emissions are produced during this stage. During this stage, sulfur is required to create the reactions needed.
After the tires are produced they are now handed over to the Formula 1 teams to test and race with. The emissions during the use of the tires is not as significant as the other parts of its life cycle. Less than 1% of their 2023 carbon footprint came from using these tires due to the sustainable fuel they are using. With average speeds of 220 miles per hour, the tires burning rubber and heating up will stick to the track making the cars use more fuel to generate the same amount of power to keep going. The fuel they use is 100% sustainable energy that is carbon neutral- carbon being emitted is the same amount of carbon being used. They also introduced hybrid engines which allow them to create more power while using less fuel.
During the race season, the teams will race in 20 different countries within the span of 10 months. The equipment they need to race each weekend will either be shipped or flown to their next destination depending on the importance of it. For example chairs and tables will be put onto a cargo ship, but their tires or other car parts are prioritized and flown overseas by plane. In 2022, 49% of their 223,031 tonnes of CO2 emissions, roughly 109,285 tonnes, was used for the transportation of their equipment during the race year. That same year they had redesigned their freight containers for their cargo planes so they could fit more per plane. Another redesign was their race itinerary to decrease the amount of energy they used to produce traveling back and forth during the year- races that are closer geographically are now put back to back to reduce travel distance.
In 2023 Formula introduced a freight truck for their European rounds to carry the equipment, using second gen bio fuel, decreasing their energy output by 83% from their fuel driven trucks. Biofuel is created by renewable resources coming from plants and algae. The emissions that do come from using biofuel include carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and sulfur dioxide. Equipment for nine of their European rounds were carried by their 18 new trucks using hydrotreated vegetable oil, which are all powdered by DHL. The vegetable oil used to make the fuel for these trucks come from renewable bio-based feedstock, which is obtained from wasted oils and fats residues, for example, used cooking oil. Instead of producing 3.6 tonnes of CO2 for every 1,000 liters of using this fuel, only 0.1952 tonnes is produced.
Formula 1 tires are meant to be used for only a short distance, increasing the amount of tires that need to be made and recycled. At the end of the tires life cycle, Formula 1 will send them to cement factories in the UK where they will be shredded and used in place of coal to keep their machines running. These shredders can use 150 kW of power to shred 150 tires at a time. These tires can produce an equivalent amount of energy as oil and more than coal, decreasing the amount of emission these factories will produce. Pirelli has also started to recycle their tires and extract as many components from their used tires to create more tires.
The energy used within the manufacturing process and sources, other than the company themselves, are not as transparent about their energy usage. Both Pirelli and Formula 1 are on course to creating and maintaining energy efficient sources for the tires, if they are being honest about the data they are giving to the public. The need for Pirelli Formula 1 tires are increasing due to the addition of more races and on track testing that are being implemented throughout the race season. As these companies reach for more sustainable options and continue to be conscious of their emissions, the outputs into the atmosphere will decrease as time goes on.
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Caroline Chen
Professor Cogdell
DES40A
5 June 2024
Waste and Emissions of Pirelli Racing Tires
Waste management and disposal is of the utmost importance in today’s society. Due to the high emissions of greenhouse gasses and its effect on the ozone, many companies have developed environmentally friendly ways to ensure clean and effective waste management. In the motor vehicle industry, most notably Formula 1, we have leading tire disruptors such as Pirelli to ensure proper waste management and disposal. Pirelli’s approach to the waste management processes of the professional racing realm reflects the company’s dedication to sustainability and environmental ethics. Operating based on a circular economy, the company utilizes innovative technology to implement the five R hierarchy – Re-think, Refuse, Reduce, Repurpose, Recycle, transforming end-of-life tires (ELTs) into valuable resources.
Pirelli’s production of professional racing tires prioritizes high-performance materials and the implementation of “green technology” into its tire life-cycle processes. Following the firm’s self-proclaimed goals of changing the trajectory of waste in the professional racing community, they’ve partnered with companies like Ecopenous, one of the main consortia in Italy (Pirelli 2024). The driving contributor to partnering with these companies is to promote environmentally conscious disposal and recycling of tires. As prominent suppliers of Formula 1, Pirelli’s material composition for their racing tires consists of softer rubber compounds to maximize grip and traction. This entails a much shorter life span in comparison to the average commercial tire, which is optimized for durability and longevity. On average for Formula 1 racing courses, hard tires last approximately 40 to 50 laps, medium tires for around 30 to 40 laps, and soft tires for roughly 20 to 30 laps. Once the tires have been worn down to their last mileage, the collection of the racing tires officiates the beginning of the waste management process. Pirelli works closely in partnership with Ecopneus, a non-profit association that is responsible for the collection, processing, and tracking of the final destination of end-of-life tires. After each Grand Prix, the end-of-life tires are collected and transported back to cement factories in Didcot, where they are finely shredded and burned at extreme temperatures. Sharing similar sentiments to Pirelli’s goals of sustainability in the racing community, Ecopneus aims to establish a circular economy, modeled after the five R hierarchy of eco-conscious development. According to the June 2021 Sustainability Report, since 2011, Ecopneus has managed over 2.2 million tonnes of used tires—130 thousand tonnes above legal targets, averaging a 6% annual increase. They conducted over seven hundred thousand collection missions from twenty-five thousand registered tire specialists across Italy, including the collection of eighty-seven thousand tonnes from historical stocks and abandoned sites (Ecopneus Sustainability Report, June 2021). This is a representation of Ecopneous’s efforts to implement the circular economy with ELTs. Addressing the exponential growth of overconsumption within the past few decades, the circular economy strays from the typical “one and done” model of traditional linear economies. Products and the attached disposal processes are designed to be recycled and reutilized for a long period.
Disposal of the tires involves several physical and chemical transformations to separate and extract second raw materials. Second, raw materials from waste tires, such as rubber, fillers, and metal components, can be effectively broken down through shredding, grinding, and pyrolysis-the decomposing of materials at high temperatures, allowing for the creation of new polymeric products and the recovery of valuable substances like carbon black and steel. The process of separating the tire from the rims can cause damage to the tire itself, which makes the fitting procedures highly disposable, as it cannot be reused again regardless of the tire’s condition. However valuable metal elements can still be extracted and recycled from damaged rims. Once the tire is removed from its metal rims, the rubber components undergo mechanical decomposition that shreds the material into crumb rubber. The crumb rubber can then be utilized in various applications such as second materials for sports infrastructure: athletics tracks, football pitches, and basketball courts or as road asphalt. ELTs can also be implemented into urban infrastructure, such as curbs, traffic dividers, and protective coverings. Pirelli references that more than 40% of ELTs are used to produce secondary raw materials globally, whereas 15% are placed into power plants and cement works to generate energy (Tyre Industry Project of the World Business Council for Sustainable Development). In addition, steel and fiber components can be extracted from ELTs with the use of advanced technologies for reallocation in non-specific applications. Given the high rubber content, the significant polymeric material also allows for discarded tires to serve as feedstock for the production of new polymeric items. All of these diverse applications validate Pirelli’s sustainability efforts, by minimizing waste through the circular economy model.
Moving into the actual chemical breakdown of ELTs, tires exhibit a thermal decomposition process known as pyrolysis, which occurs in the absence of oxygen. Typically taking place in a controlled environment, such as a furnace or a reactor vessel, the waste materials are heated to extreme temperatures up to thousands of degrees Celsius. This causes the materials to decompose into simpler compounds like gasses, liquids, and solid char. The remaining byproducts can also be refined into other valuable sources such as biofuels, chemicals, or carbonaceous materials. According to Pirelli’s statement, tires are heated until the elastomeric component breaks down into various products, including gas, mineral oil, and recovered carbon black (Pirelli 2024). Recovered carbon black (rCB) is supposedly a more sustainable material in contrast to virgin carbon black which is made from heavy petroleum products like coal. Recycled carbon black contains about 80–85% virgin carbon black and 15–20% ash, in which the ash is composed of silica and zinc oxide. Divisive to the waste processes of regular commercial tires, racing tires specific to Pirelli’s brand exhibit lower levels of hazardous gasses. With commercial tires, pyrolysis only reaches around 500ºC when broken down into its basic components, and reused as a second raw material. Pirelli’s racing tires are burned at high temperatures (1500ºC), three times greater than the average commercial tires, to minimize the amount of noxious emissions. What is leftover from this chemical process is a mound of non-poisonous ash, which is the recovered carbon black. For regular tires, the emitted gasses from tire fires are high in CO, CO₂, and sulfur oxides, thus being harmful to both people and the environment. As Pirelli continues to promote sustainable racing, they are geared towards lowering the CO₂ emissions by an additional 25% in the year 2025.
To conclude, Pirelli's dedication to sustainability and environmental responsibility is evident in its waste management practices within the professional racing industry. Through Pirelli’s 5 R hierarchy – Re-think, Refuse, Reduce, Repurpose, Recycle, they are transforming end-of-life tires (ELTs) into valuable resources that can be used in manifold ways. From being able to be used in everyday social operations such as roads or even in niche communities such as sports fields, Pirelli emphasizes the great importance of strong sustainable environmental practices towards waste management and disposal. Given that a majority of the sources are provided by Pirelli’s reports, there is a biased connotation regarding the raw procedures and aftermath of ELT disposal. The lack of evidence for real data on Pirelli’s carbon emissions and specified trajectory of recycled materials paints a positive picture of the company’s reputation. In light of the bias, a racing tire is by no means 100% recyclable, leaving room for inevitable waste and alternative ways of reallocation. However, to combat possible bias regarding the topic, we have divulged into other resources to ensure we can provide ourselves with ubiquitous information.
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