Design Life-Cycle

Helen Ho

Professor Christina Cogdell

DES 40A: P6 Group

13 April 2013

Life Cycle Analysis of a Toyota Prius: Raw Materials

     The Toyota Prius Hybrid car has been advertised as one of the leading vehicles sold for its low greenhouse gas emissions because of its function to run on both fuel and electric power. Even so, the Prius is manufactured the same way as the standard gasoline car. The raw materials needed to make this car; plastic, rubber, glass, and metals; much like their traditional petro-fueled automobile counterparts except for its unique Nickel-Metal Hydride battery pack (eHow.com). It is true that the CO2 emissions on the Prius is lower than a petroleum based car, but that doesn’t mean that it is as environmentally friendly than the companies advertise it to be. Weighing the pros and cons, the Prius still causes harm to the environment like the standard petroleum based car; but in another form.

Rubber

     One common raw material for any car manufacturing is rubber; and the Prius is no exception. Rubber is used to manufacture many different products in a car. One important and obvious product made of rubber is the car tire. A classic Prius is heavier compared to the average vehicle, so it needs at least a minimum standard of 35 Pounds per Square Inch air pressured tire. Bridgestone supplies Toyota with a set of Bridgestone Potenza RE92 tires for a Prius (John). They mainly get their supply of rubber from plantations located in two places: the P.T. Sumatra Rubber Estate in Serbalawan, North Sumatra and the P.T. Bridgestone Kalimantan Plantation in Tanah Laut, South Kalimantan. I was unable to find the ingredients list of Bridgestone’s PotenzaRE92, so I found a general compound list for rubber tires. There are four main types of rubbers used; natural rubber, stryene-butadiene rubber (SBR), polybutadene rubber (BR), and butyl rubber. Along with the second ingredient, a filler, most commonly carbon black, silica, clay, or titanium oxide, different types of tires could be produced based on the selection of the filler (ORingsusa.com). Butyl rubbers and halogenated butyl rubbers have low air permeability, so industries use them for the tire’s inner lining for purposes of maintaining the compressed air and tire pressure. SBR, BR, and natural rubbers are primarily used for the tread and sidewalls of the tire. Another ingredient thrown into the formula to reinforce the strength of the rubber tires would be cords, made of cotton, rayon, polyester, steel, fiberglass, and aramid. With procedures, companies are able to make durable tires.

     Toyota Priuses also come with original floor mats with the Prius logo, but I was unable to find their raw materials list. Instead, I found a company that sells highly reviewed and economically priced mats for almost any car; Lloyd Mats. They offer a variety of mats on their website, such as the Classic Loops and Rubbertites. For classic loop mats, the customer’s chosen color is “added to the liquid polypropylene before the material solidifies and is woven into yarn” (Lloyd Mats). For reference, liquid polypropylene is a industrial chemical intermediate in an array of chemical and plastic products such as polygas propylene oxide, oxo chemicals, acrylonitrile and more, making the carpet fade, stain, and soil resistant. Rubbertite, on the other hand, is a heavyweight yet flexible composition rubber that is designed to hold water, snow, sand, and spills. Rubber is used to manufacture other products such as “bumpers, hoses, seals, gaskets, wipers, and more” (Smithsonian Museum). But there are various companies that can produce these types of products, so it is uncertain exactly which brand Toyota chooses as for their initial assembling. There are many products inside the Prius that are made out of rubber; even if we don’t notice them, it still has its significant part in the end product as a whole.

Plastics

     The second most common material in a Toyota Prius would be plastic, a byproduct of petroleum. There are various companies that process plastics and package them for other companies to buy and use. The average 3,000 pound car uses around 250 pounds of plastic dispersed around various parts of the car including: upholstery, dashboard, wheels, bumpers, console, steering, and more (Smithsonian Museum). Since December 17th, 2008, Toyota has used more amounts of ecological plastic in their vehicle interiors, which does not limit to only Priuses. Toyota Motor Corporation (TMC) has announced “increase [in] their use of plant-derived, carbon-neutral plastics (meaning zero net CO2 emissions over an entire product life cycle) in more vehicle models, starting with a new hybrid vehicle next year.” The plastics would be mainly two types of Ecological Plastics; a 100% plant-derived material and a combination of plant and petroleum-derived material. Ecological Plastics meet the shock and heat resistant demands for interiors. The cuff plates, cowl trim, floor finish plate and toolbox throughout the car, a plant derived polylactic acid and the petroleum derived polypropylene is used. For the headliner, sun visors, and pillar covers, plant derived polyester and petroleum derived polyethylene terephthalate is used for the fibrous potion. The covering for the trunk liner is made of plant derived polylactic acid and petroleum derived polyethylene terephthalate. The base material for door trims are made with only plant derived kenaf fiber polylactic acid. The form portion of the seat cushions are made of  the plant derived polyol (from caster oil) and the petroleum derived polyol and isocyanate (a cross-linking agent). For a complete table of the materials mentioned, refer to Figure 1, reference graph showing the Ecological Plastic Application and materials used. With the Prius constantly voted as one of the top eco-friendly cars, it is important to the company’s image and consumers that the materials are constantly being improved to be eco-friendly.

Glass/Silica

     The third common material in a Toyota Prius is glass. Glass material is typically made of silica, found in various parts of the earth like sand, or ground flint (Lecture 4). Glass typically used as a material for car windows, safety glass, and the windshield of any car. Toyota currently obtains their supply of glass through a Japanese company named Nippon Sheet Glass Co. or NSG. They have 32 sites in over 16 countries, with a “major presence in Europe, Japan, North America, South America, and China” (NSG Group). Their products for automobiles include a wide variety of automobile windows that have solar control glazings, water management glazings, laminated side glazings, and acoustic glazing. But from a general perspective, “silica glass is used for manufacturing automotive windshields and windows” (TuningLinx). But aside from silica glass, compositions are also added into the formula. 72% of silicon dioxide (SiO2) is used as vitrifier. 14% of sodium oxide (Na2O) is used as flux. 10% of calcium oxide (CaO) and 4% of magnesium oxide (MgO) is used as stabilizer. Car windows,  on the other hand, are made with flat glass, which means no other compounds added, through the float glass process. After stages of fusion, melting into a ‘float bath’ or liquid tin, cooled, the glass is finally cut into pieces of 6.10m x 3.35m, or to fit whatever car frame specified. At this point, the glass can either be processed as a “single-pane toughened safety glass (TSG) or as a laminated safety glass (LSG) which is primarily used for automotive windshields.” As far as optical properties, TSG and LSG are around the same. The difference, however, is the quality of the glass. TSG has higher thermal and mechanical strength and has a different shattering behavior compared to LSG, which simply has a normal shattering behavior. When a LSG is cracked, it is easier to see through the glass than TSG. There are, however, green or bronze colored windows for heat absorption. The color blocks infrared light better, but the light from the visual spectrum will reduce to 80% from 90%.  

Mining Metals

     Last, but not least, metals. Metals are an essential part of every car. Metals are usually found via mining. One company called the Sumitomo Metal Mining Co., LTD., is one mining company partnered with Toyota. They have their core facility in the Hishikari Mine in Kagoshima, Japan, and various oversea facilities in various places around the world, such as the Morenci Mine in Arizona, US, the Pogo Mine in Alaska, US, the Ojos del Dalade Copper Mine in Coquimbo, Chile, and more (SMM Co). They mine mainly four main products: copper, nickel, gold, and lead/zinc. Another company partnered with Toyota is Posco, a South Korean steelmaker group and the first non-Japanese Toyota supplier group. They specialize in making hot rolled steel, coled rolled steel, automotive steel, and API Steel. Unfortunately, there weren’t any information regarding Sumitomo’s or Posco’s in-depth mining locations, so I have decided to research a similar company called the Zenith Mining and Construction which mines a variety of metals such as coal, copper and iron. For iron mining, they first blast away the Earth’s crust. Afterwards, scoop the iron ore and load it into the haul trucks to be transported into a primary crusher. The crusher breaks the boulders from 1.5 meters into diameters of footballs before transferring it into a secondary crusher, where it would be further broken down into the size of grapefruits (Zenith). Through gravity and high gradient separation, iron ore concentrates are produced, melted and packaged for companies like Toyota to buy and produce their products.

     There was not any information on the exact raw materials that makes up a Toyota Prius, but there is data on mining products to build a 3,000 pound car (Smithsonian Museum). According to the Toyota website, a Prius v is around 3,274 pounds. For the average 3,000 pound car, and iron are the two biggest products used to build a car. Iron is used mainly to make the fuel tank, the steel component of the car frame, roof, side panels and hood, various engine blocks, pumps, axles, brake (parking), gears, and cables. About 240 pounds of aluminum is used to make various parts such as the frame and body, wheel rims, lamps, metallic flake paint, engine parts (pistons, radiator, cylinder heads), magnets, and air conditioner condenser and pipes. And 42 pounds of copper, is used for wiring purposes and for the brass in belted tires and radiators. Other metals or mining minerals 30 pounds and under include: chromium, copper, lead, manganese, nickel and zinc. About 76% of the average car is made of sheet metal, so metal is no doubt, a very important aspect to any vehicle (Green Vehicle Disposal).

The Nickel-Metal Hydride Battery, Lithium-Ion Battery, and Their Problems

     The four main raw materials used to make the Toyota Prius are also prevalent in a petro-fueled automobile. What separates a hybrid from a petro-fueled car is with addition to the automotive battery to start the car, hybrid cars like the Prius also use a Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH) battery pack, an “electrochemical device used to store electrical energy; capable of storing a substantial amount of electrical energy” (Cobasys 1). The composition of the NiMH battery includes: nickel powder, nickel hydroxide, cobalt, manganese, lanthanum, cerium, neodymium, potassium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide, and lithium hydroxide (batteriesplus.com), with China being the main supplier of these rare elements (Lecture 13). As eco-friendly as the Prius is marketed to be in fuel efficiency, it is not efficient in terms of sustainability. Elements in the periodic table like neodymium and lanthanum are rare elements, but are key ingredients to this battery (Smartplanet). But recently, there is an alternative battery use in the Plug in Hybrid Priuses; the Lithium-Ion battery. In 2011, Panasonic announced to supply Toyota with Lithium Ion batteries (news.panasonic.net). The standard Lithium-Ion battery contains these following components: lithium cobalt oxide (25-40%), iron (15-25%), aluminum (2-6%), Graphite (10-20%), copper (5-15%), and organic electrolyte (10-20%) (BatteriesPlus). In comparison to the NiMH batteries, the Li-Ion batteries have higher energy densities, but at the expense of aging without use, cycle life, and high cost (Samaras). So far, which is the better choice of the two? With the rise of hybrid vehicles and constant improvements through experiments, it is still too early to make conclusions.

Reduce, Reuse, and Recycling of Resources

     But what happens when cars reach their End of Life Cycle? Consumers would hire a company to break down materials and recycle the car. One of such companies is Green Vehicle Disposal. They take cars and recycle as much of the car as possible starting with laminated and toughed glass, plastics, and rubber from tires. Metals and Aluminum are essentially important.. Metals in general have a high recycling rate of 95% in 2011. In the US, the primary source for steel scrap are automobiles (Fenton 80). Aluminum specifically, does not degrade when being recycled, so the aluminum industry is dedicated to collecting and recycling aluminum from End of Life Vehicles (Green Vehicle Disposal). This in term conserves energy because re-melting scrap requires less energy than making steel from iron ore.

     And with more awareness to the environment, even Toyota has made efforts to reduce the waste of old cars. Aside from their shift to more eco-plastics in cars mentioned earlier (Figure 1), another way Toyota improved on recycling is the development of a better dismantling system. In addition to Toyota’s adoption of the easy-to-dismantle vehicle structures and ‘Easy to Dismantle Mark’ (Figure 2), dismantling car parts for the factories has also decreased by 30% by adopting new techniques in the new Raum in Figure 3 (Toyota Global). Although a recycling solution hasn’t been found for the rare materials and battery recycling, efforts are still being made. Toyota Motors, the Toyota Chemical Engineering Company LTD. and Sumitomo Mining Company, are joining together to recycle the nickel contained within the NiMH batteries with the help of “high-precision nickel sorting and extraction technology, materials can be introduced directly into the nickel-refining process, thus achieving ‘battery-to-battery’ recycling” (ReliablePlant). Batteries are sent to advanced recycling facilities where the Toyota Chemical Engineering sorts and Sumitomo Metal Mining are refines the nickel for battery manufacturing. For a complete recycling chart, look at Figure 4. Although the recycling processes are far from perfect, more innovations are being developed only to be improved in decades to come.

Conclusion

     In today’s industry, the Toyota Prius is one of the top-rated eco-friendly cars. Despite that, their manufacturing process is similar to any other car being produced; with the exception of the NiMH or Li-Ion battery being unique to the hybrid cars. While the Prius does have lower CO2 emissions compared to their petro-based vehicle counterparts, rare earth elements are being exhausted for its production, which is counterproductive to its cause. Until a more efficient recycling, or even up-cycling system is solidly intact, the Toyota Prius is just consumer product that is simply harming the environment in another form.

Bibliography

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{C}{C}12.  {C}{C}Maxxis International. "How a Tire Is Made." Maxxis. Maxxis International, n.d. Web. 13 Mar. 2013. <http://www.maxxis.com/AutomobileLight-Truck/How-a-Tire-is-Made.aspx>.
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{C}{C}15.  {C}{C}O-Rings, Inc. "How to Make Tires." O-Rings, Inc. O-Rings, Inc., n.d. Web. 13 Mar. 2013. <http://www.oringsusa.com/html/make_tires.html>.
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{C}{C}16.  {C}{C}POSCO. "Management Organization." POSCO. Six Stigma, n.d. Web. 12 Mar. 2013. <http://www.posco.com/homepage/docs/eng/html/company/posco/s91a1010091c.html>.
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{C}{C}17.  {C}{C}Sam, Alexander. "Materials Used to Make a Hybrid Car." EHow. Demand Media, 21 Oct. 2010. Web. 4 Mar. 2013. <http://www.ehow.com/list_7376620_materials-used-make-hybrid-car.html>.

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22.  Toyota Corp. "Design for Recycling (Based on Eco-VAS)." Www.toyota-global.com. Toyota Motor Corporation, n.d. Web. 10 Mar. 2013. <http://www.toyota-global.com/sustainability/environmental_responsibility/automobile_recycling/design_for_recycling/development_of_recyclable_vehicle_structures.html>.
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23.  Toyota Corp. "Prius v 2013." Toyota Prius Hybrid. Toyota Motor Corporation, n.d. Web. 10 Mar. 2013. <http://www.toyota.com/priusv/features.html>.
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24.  Toyota Corp. " Toyota to Increase 'Ecological Plastic' in Vehicle Interiors" TOYOTA: News Releases. Toyota Motor Corporation, 17 Dec. 2008. Web. 9 Mar. 2013. <http://www.toyota.co.jp/en/news/08/1217.html>.
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25.  Toyota. "Toyota, Three Partner Firms Start Joint Battery-to-battery Recycling." Web log post. Reliable Plant. Noria Corporation, n.d. Web. 11 Mar. 2013. <http://www.reliableplant.com/Read/27171/Toyota-joint-battery-recycling>.
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26.  TuningLinx.com. "Automotive Windshield, Car Window Glass & Safety Glass." Automotive Windshield, Car Window Glass and Safety Glass Film Lsg Tsg. TuningLinx.com, n.d. Web. 10 Mar. 2013. <http://www.tuninglinx.com/html/safety-glass.html>.

27.  Zenith Mining and Construction. "Iron Mining Process." Zenith Mining and Construction. ShangHai Zenith Machinery, n.d. Web. 9 Mar. 2013. <http://www.miningprocess.net/mining-process/iron-mining-process.html>.

Images Cited

1)    {C}{C}Toyota Corp. "Design for Recycling (Based on Eco-VAS)." Www.toyota-global.com. Toyota Motor Corporation, n.d. Web. 10 Mar. 2013. < http://www.toyota-global.com/sustainability/environmental_responsibility/automobile_recycling/design_for_recycling/new_development_of_automobiles_based_on_the_dfr_concept.html>.

2)    {C}{C}Toyota Corp. "Design for Recycling (Based on Eco-VAS)." Www.toyota-global.com. Toyota Motor Corporation, n.d. Web. 10 Mar. 2013. < http://www.toyota-global.com/sustainability/environmental_responsibility/automobile_recycling/design_for_recycling/development_of_recyclable_vehicle_structures.html>.

3)    {C}{C}Toyota. "Toyota, Three Partner Firms Start Joint Battery-to-battery Recycling." Web log post. Reliable Plant. Noria Corporation, n.d. Web. 11 Mar. 2013. <http://www.reliableplant.com/Read/27171/Toyota-joint-battery-recycling>.

4)    {C}{C}Toyota Corp. " Toyota to Increase 'Ecological Plastic' in Vehicle Interiors" TOYOTA: News Releases. Toyota Motor Corporation, 17 Dec. 2008. Web. 9 Mar. 2013. <http://www.toyota.co.jp/en/news/08/1217.html>.

Alexandra Lorens

Design 40a

March 13, 2013

Life Cycle Process of the Toyota Prius - Embodied Energy

     The Toyota Prius was first released in Japan in 1997. It quickly gained popularity in the United States due to its high fuel efficiency as well as its eco-friendliness thanks to fewer greenhouse gas emissions. Currently, there are four different models varying in size and purpose available on the market with the most recent being a Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV).

     The Prius could be considered an effective way of taking a step in the right direction when caring for the environment, but with various studies taking on a more grim perspective on the issue, the true eco effectiveness gets called into question. Individuals may not consider the impact of production alone when they are shopping for their next hybrid. It has been discussed that the battery packs used in Priuses are known to leave a significant carbon footprint during their production phases. Analysis of the issue begins in Dave Roos' article, “Does hybrid car production waste offset hybrid benefits?”;

      “The production of lithium-ion batteries account for 2 to 5 percent of total lifetime hybrid emissions and nickel-hydride batteries are responsible for higher sulfur oxide emissions, roughly 22 pounds (10 kilograms) per hybrid compared with 2.2 pounds (about 1 kilogram) for a conventional vehicle”.

     Though amidst the backlash Toyota has received for harmful emissions occurring during production, the company still strives for sustainable practices. At the main Prius manufacturing location, the Tsutsumi production plant in Japan, Toyota has gone above and beyond to attempt to counter any negative criticism. According to Matt Brogan in his article, “Toyota’s Tsutsumi Plant – tour a green role model”,

     “Toyota installed 50,000 square metres of photovoltaic solar panels at Tsutsumi, equivalent in size to more than 60 tennis courts. The total output of the panels is 2000kW, which is equal to the average consumption of 500 households. This reduces the plant’s CO2 emissions by 740 tonnes per year, effectively saving 2,500 drums of oil (one drum is 200 litres)”. This is all along with grass growing on the roof of the factory and notable amounts of tree planting in the area.

     In this paper, I hope to answer some, though not all questions (since there are many) pertaining to the ins and outs of Prius production. I have broken down the concept of embodied energy into three categories: extraction, manufacturing, and transport. Through my research I have uncovered aspects involving mining for metals used for battery construction and processing steels for car framing, rubber extraction for tires, and glass processing. I had some difficulty finding information on transportation and have combined both extraction and manufacturing in the same paragraphs.

Metals

     The extraction of raw minerals is not a light-hearted subject when it comes to the intensity involved in large scale production. Especially not when it comes to vehicle construction. Naturally, the obvious choice in manufacturing is to find the cheapest means of acquiring, producing, and distributing a resource. China is a big name in this business. According to Alexander Jung and Wieland Wagner in their article “Rare Earths: High-Tech Companies Face Shortages as China Hoards Metals”,

“Up to 6,000 people work at Bayan Obo, China's largest mine, which is completely inaccessible to the outside world”.

     The country has fallen victim to environmentally destructive practices when it comes to the extraction of lithium most commonly used in car batteries. Mistakes have been made in the process: “In the Bayan Obo region of China, for example, miners removed topsoil and extracted the gold-flecked metals using acids that entered the groundwater, destroying nearby agricultural land” (Roos).

    China is sought after as a provider of metals due to its cheap labor and low prices. “Nowhere on earth are larger amounts produced than at Bayan Obo. About 40 percent of world production comes from these mines, and the People's Republic satisfies a total of 97 percent of global demand” (Jung, Wagner). Though, this report was in 2009, the escalation of dwindling natural resources can only be anticipated and assumed. Prices since have most likely gone up as a compensation for mines that are no longer filled to the brim with highly sought after resources.

Another metal required in the production of the Prius battery is nickel. According to Kimberley A. Jones in her thesis rather hugely titled “The Environmental and Human Health Impact of the Hybrid-Electric Vehicle Lifecycle: Emissions From the Tailpipe and the Nickel Metal-Hydride Battery”, “The primary production of nickel is roughly equally divided between production from domestic mining and imported nickel ore. The majority of primary nickel (68%) produced in North America is exported, while the remainder is locally consumed” (Jones).

Nickel is mined through extractive metallurgy which can be referred to as the means in which metals are extracted from ore, purified, and recycled as stated on the Arizona Gold Prospectors web page. A positive thing about nickel is that it is highly recyclable in the auto industry: “In aggregate, 81% of nickel is recycled

at the vehicle’s end of life - 40% recycled back to the automotive sector and 41% is recycled to other

nickel applications. Roughly one-fifth of this nickel (19%) is dissipated to the environment (disposed in a landfill or otherwise)” (Jones).

Steel is also a major component in the automobile industry. In order to get steel, you separate it from iron ore. A process that is most often used is smelting and it is often combined with steel scraps. Steel is very versatile in the sense that it is easily recyclable and can be used many times. 

{C}{C}According to Michael D. Fenton in his paper titled Iron and Steel Scrap, “Recycled iron and steel scrap is a vital raw material for the production of new steel and cast iron products. The steel and foundry industries in the United States have been structured to recycle scrap, and, as a result, are highly dependent upon scrap” (Fenton). Fenton goes on to say that by remelting scrap, we are able to save energy than if we were to go through the process of the extraction of iron ore. He adds, “Also,consumption of iron and steel scrap by remelting reduces the burden on landfill disposal facilities and prevents the accumulation of abandoned steel products in the environment” (Fenton).

Rubber

     Rubber serves as an integral ingredient in the manufacturing of tires. Additional ingredients involve synthetically constructed polymers with properties that are more specific to the qualities necessary for the creation of a successful long lasting tire.  These qualities include water proofing, strength, resilience, and flexibility. According to the Toyo Tires website, the polymers in addition to natural rubber used in tire production are listed as follows: “Styrene Butadiene Rubber (SBR), Butadiene Rubber (BR), Isoprene Rubber (IR), Halogenated Butyl Rubber”. Anti-oxidants and waxes are also utilized in the construction of a resilient tire as a means of preventing sun and heat damage. Polymers used are known to link to the anti-oxidants in order to further prevent penetration of foreign sharp objects as easily. 

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     According to James A. Duke in The Handbook of Energy Crops, “Rubber is now an Asian crop, with Asia producing 92% of the world's natural rubber in Malaysia, Thailand, Sri Lanka, South Vietnam, and Sarawak”. In fact, the Michelin Rubber Plantation is also located in Asia, specifically in Vietnam. 

    The process of harvesting natural rubber involves making specific cuts into Hevea Brasiliensis trees. A bucket will collect the sap as it drips down a chute.  Duke states, “An average tapper can tap 200–300 trees in 3 hours. Then the tapper starts back through the grove and empties the cups into large pails or buckets, sometimes adding a few drops of dilute ammonium solution to prevent coagulation” (Duke).

     As a complete whole, tires consist of natural rubbers, polymers, and carbon black which forms the skid marks most often seen on roads. Carbon black isn't to be confused with black carbon which is often considered derogatory to the environment. One of the processes by which carbon black is created is known as the thermal black process. It begins with two furnaces that take turns preheating the material. According to The International Carbon Black Association webpage, the process continues as so:

     “The natural gas is injected into the hot refractory lined furnace, and, in the absence of air, the heat from the refractory material decomposes the natural gas into carbon black and hydrogen. The aerosol material stream is quenched with water sprays and filtered in a bag house. The exiting carbon black may be further processed to remove impurities, pelletized, screened, and then packaged for shipment”.

GLASS

     Glass is composed of silica, sodium oxide, and calcium oxide or as the raw materials are concerned: sand, soda ash, and limestone. In order to create glass, this mixture of raw materials must combine together and be heated. According to L.S. Millberg in his article entitled “How Is an Automobile Windshield Made?”, “Glass used for windshields also usually contains several other oxides: potassium oxide (K2O derived from potash), magnesium oxide (MgO), and aluminum oxide (AI2O3 derived from feldspar)” (Millberg).

      The Nippon Sheet Glass company based in Japan was a big supplier to Toyota in the 1980's. It currently owns Pilkington, a UK based glass maker. The means by which Pilkington creates glass for automobiles is what I will discuss, as I feel it could be most relevant to the Prius.

     According to the Pilkington website, they begin a batch by combining raw materials as mentioned above and melt them all together. The melted substance is then “poured continuously from a furnace onto a shallow bath of molten tin in a chemically controlled atmosphere”. It is called the float glass process because it literally floats at this point in the process, evening out as it spreads to fill the space. It is then taken from the tin and formed accordingly to the thickness necessary. The Pilkington plants are able to create flat glass at a variety of thicknesses perfect for use assembling automobiles.

Transportation

     I could not find very much information on transportation, but I did find interesting links amongst the Nippon brand name. Nippon works with steel, glass, and is also a shipping company called Nippon Yusen Kabushiki Kaisha or NYK. I would assume that due to the Prius assembly lines being stationed in Japan, transport would occur overseas on giant car carriers as pictured in the photo. Transport would then probably shift to trucks or trains to move the vehicles to more specific dealerships or factories for further refinement.

     Posco, is another Japanese steelmaker that I am fairly certain is associated with Toyota due to an article I found entitled “Posco Joins Toyota Top Supplier Group, Challenging Nippon Steel” by Masatsugu Horie, Masumi Suga and Sungwoo Park that was published in 2012. The company is stationed in South Korea with a U.S. branch in Pittsburg, California called U.S.S. Posco as found on their website. I would imagine transport would be more local in the U.S. thanks to this Pittsburg branch, allowing for the possible utilization of trains or simply trucks on highways.

Conclusion

     Generally speaking, the main benefit that the Prius offers is reduced emissions of greenhouse gases; 33 - 37% lower when compared to a Corolla of similar size. Besides that, the cost-benefits of a Toyota Prius is the same as a traditional car that runs on gasoline. HEVs contain the same amount of recycled nickel as conventional vehicles, but 15 times the amount of primary nickel. Although the Prius reduces greenhouse gas emissions, more nickel is used in the battery making process and ultimately it is still adding to landfills.

Bibliography

Roos, Dave. "Does hybrid car production waste offset hybrid benefits?" 06 December 2010. HowStuffWorks.com. <http://science.howstuffworks.com/science-vs-myth/everyday- myths/does-hybrid-car-production-waste-offset-hybrid-benefits.htm> 13 March 2013.

Duke, James A. 1983. Handbook of Energy Crops. Unpublished.

Toyo Tires. Toyo Tire & Rubber, n.d. Web.  <http://www.toyojapan.com/tire-technology/tire- materials/>. 13 Mar. 2013.

Brogan, Matt. "Toyota’s Tsutsumi Plant – Tour a Green Role Model." Car Advice. CarAdvice, n.d. Web. 13 Mar. 2013. <http://www.caradvice.com.au/45807/toyotas-tsutsumi-plant-tour-a-green- role-model/>.

"What Is Carbon Black?" International Carbon Black Association. International Carbon Black Association, n.d. Web. 13 Mar. 2013.

"Automotive Glazing- Introduction." Pilkington. Pilkington Group. Web. 13 Mar.2013. <http://www.pilkington.com/automotive+international/automotive+glazing/default.htm>.

Millberg, L. S. "How Is an Automobile Windshield Made?" Answers. Answers, n.d. Web. 13 Mar. 2013. <http://www.answers.com/topic/automobile-windshield>.

Fenton, Michael D. Iron and Steel Scrap. N.p.: U.S. Geological Survey, 2013. Print.

Kristie Wu

DES 40A

Winter 2013

Individual Research Paper

Wastes & Emissions of a Toyota Prius

     When hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) were first introduced, they seemed to be the green solution to traditional motor vehicles. They combine electric and fuel power, use less gas, and seemingly emit fewer pollutants into the atmosphere. And while that is what most hybrid-electric vehicles, including the most widely used Toyota Prius advocate, they do not make the consumers aware of its lifecycle. They fail to acknowledge how the energy and resources it uses and the wastes it produces do not prove to be as sustainable. The main selling point of the Toyota Prius as an eco-friendly vehicle is that because it does not have the conventional internal combustion engine, and uses an electric battery to power a significant amount of the driving, it will not emit as much greenhouse gases as the average vehicle. And while this may be true, a Prius’ tailpipe emissions, unique nickel-metal hydride battery, and the car’s disposal process prove to have some damaging environmental effects.

     When compared to an equivalent and conventional internal combustion engine vehicle, the Prius has proven itself to “reduce fuel consumption and lower greenhouse gases,” (Jones). In most research studies testing the amounts of waste and emissions in a Prius or other hybrid electric vehicles, they are being compared to conventional vehicles to see the difference in hybrid or Prius efficiencies. One study done by the University of British Columbia tested the lifecycle tailpipe and fuel cycle emissions of three criteria pollutants including, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and non-methane hydrocarbons. The comparisons were made for the 2001 models of the Toyota Prius, Corolla, Echo, and Honda Civic. All of these vehicles were in the same size class, have similar passenger & luggage capacities, and engine size. After comparing these four models, the researchers came upon some unexpected results. The study showed that the Prius had statistically significant higher levels of carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons, but lower nitrogen oxide emissions. They realized however, that what this study failed to measure were the cold-start emissions, which are what the car emits for the first few minutes when the engine starts. This phase results in “higher emissions because the emissions control equipment has not yet reached its optimal operating temperature” (“Automobiles & Ozone” EPA). This aspect is important because unlike conventional vehicles, hybrids “use a hot coolant upon start up which helps limit the release of cold start emissions” (Jones). This new innovation in Toyota Prius’ create a significant change in the previous results. “When incorporating cold start emissions into their research, the results showed that with more cold-starts, the Prius reduces proportionally more carbon monoxide over the Corolla […] 37-33% lower than the Toyota Corolla,” (Jones). In addition to the Prius’ advancements in dealing with the issues of cold start emissions, the Prius reduces its greenhouse gas emissions with its “regenerative braking, shutting off the internal combustion engine when the car or light truck is stopped, allowing a smaller, more efficient engine and not requiring the engine to follow the driving cycle closely (its principal function is to recharge the battery)” (Lave & MacLean), which prevents engine idling and keeps the catalytic converter close to optimal temperature. As opposed to traditional vehicles, when a Prius comes to a stop, the engine will automatically shut off, and then when starting up again the electric motor will be used. This helps reduce the running exhaust emissions that occur in most conventional vehicles during driving and idling after the vehicle is warmed up. From these two features in the Prius, we can see that temperature is very important to the vehicle running efficiently and that a lot of the emissions that are created are due to maintaining the vehicle’s optimum temperature. These new features however, make the Prius much more complicated and expensive compared to conventional vehicles. “In a world of limited resources and many petroleum users and emissions sources, the policy question is whether the best use of resources is to build hybrids, to improve the fuel economy and environmental emissions from the other mobile sources or to devote the resources to other environmental projects” (Lave & MacLean).

     One of the additional expenses and complexities of the Toyota Prius, and a contributing factor to its wastes and emissions is the nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) battery. This battery that is included in the Prius and many other hybrid vehicles can be damaging to the environment. The wastes and emissions of the NiMH batteries occur in both the production and disposal process. One of the main environmental effects of battery production is the release of sulfur oxides (SOx) during the production of primary nickel used for the batteries, in which, “Approximately 20kg of SOx are emitted to the atmosphere for every NiMH HEV battery produced” (Jones). The first effect of sulfur oxides is its negative effect on human health, specifically the respiratory system. “SOx can react with other compounds in the atmosphere to form small particles. These particles penetrate deeply into sensitive parts of the lungs and can cause or worsen respiratory disease, such as emphysema and bronchitis, and can aggravate existing heart disease, leading to increased hospital admissions and premature death” (epa.gov).  In addition to the adverse health effects, sulfur oxides have also proven to have acidification effects upon ecosystems. “Historically, SOx emissions from nickel mining have been responsible for the acidification of proximal water bodies” (Jones). In the article, Jones goes on to describe how a major nickel-producing region in Canada deemed SOx emissions responsible for the acidification of local lakes since 1972, and throughout the years they have damaged an estimated seven thousand lakes and nearby ecosystems. These findings on both human and environmental health were emphasized by researchers from the Norwegian University of Science and Technology who did a lifecycle analysis of the NiMH battery. Their findings stated that compared to lithium ion and iron phosphate lithium ion batteries, “NiMH batteries have the highest environmental impacts on global warming, freshwater ecotoxicity, human toxicity, and marine and terrestrial ecotoxicity.” (greencarcongress.com).

     With the NiMH battery production being so detrimental to the environment, one would hope that the recycling process for the batteries limits the amount of toxicity released into the atmosphere. Sources suggest that lots of efforts are being made towards treating the end-phase of the battery as eco-friendly as possible. “Toyota has instituted a $200 bounty program that encourages scrap dealers to remove NiMH batteries from HEVs and deliver them to a recycler” (Jones), and as a result of this program, Toyota anticipates that the amount of HEV batteries that are returned to be very high, around 100%. Toyota supported this prospect by referencing INMETCO, the major NiMH battery recycler in North America, which achieves a 98% nickel recycling efficiency. Another article reports that the Toyota Motor Corporation has teamed up with its three partner firms, Sumitomo Metal Mining, Toyota Chemical Engineering, and Primearth EV Energy Company to create “the world’s first business to recycle nickel in used hybrid-vehicle nickel-metal-hydride batteries for use in new nickel-metal-hydride batteries” (reliableplant.com). The article proposes that these companies, “with the development of high-precision nickel sorting and extraction technology, materials can be introduced directly into the nickel-refining process, thus achieving ‘battery-to-battery’ recycling” (reliableplanet.com).

     This hopeful outlook on the future of dead NiMH batteries, has a lot to overcome, according to other sources which deem the recycling process of batteries to do more harm than good. “Surprisingly, nickel releases of 18-35g from the metal extraction phase of a battery are lower than those estimated from the recycling phase” (Jones). However, Jones does add, “this result must be treated with caution because there is little experience with HEV recycling technology since many hybrids sold since 2000 have yet to reach the end of their lives.” Another article suggests that, “At present, battery recycling is in a primitive state. Most consumer batteries are not recycled… Some nickel metal-hydride batteries are recycled but only to recover the nickel. A large increase in the use of nickel metal-hydride or lithium-ion batteries would require a much-improved recycling program that recovered the secondary materials in the batteries,” (Lave & MacLean). The conflict between this belief and that the recycling of nickel batteries can be sustainable leads one to question whether a Prius’ reduced fuel usage and tailpipe emissions is enough to counteract the waste and emissions of it’s NiMH battery.

     In addition to the disposal of the battery, the disposal of the entire vehicle itself is a major contributor to the wastes and emissions of the Prius. While this process is not exclusive to hybrid cars, rather to all automobiles, it is still an important part to this product’s lifecycle. At the end of motor vehicle’s useful life, it is sent to an automotive recycler, and according to the United States Council on Automotive Research (USCAR), automotive recyclers now can recover nearly 80 percent of the total materials by weight from a vehicle. The process of recycling a vehicle’s parts is done in four steps that include, dismantling, crushing, shredding, and resource recovery. During the first stage, or dismantling stage, the vehicle is taken apart and usable parts are salvaged. If usable parts are found, they can be resold or remanufactured. According to the EPA the dismantling process also removes the batteries, wheels and tires, steering columns, fenders, radios, engines, starters, transmissions, alternators, select plastic parts and components, based on aftermarket demand. At this point “all engine fluids are properly drained, stored and recycled, as well as refrigerant gases from air conditioners. Once these have been removed, the remainder of the car can be flattened, for space conserving reasons, and delivered to a scrap dealer,” (earth911.com). The flattening part of the process is the second, crushing phase of the automotive disposal process. After the vehicle is crushed, it is loaded onto the vehicle shredder, which “grinds the vehicle into fist-sized pieces, which are then separated into ferroud and non-ferrous metals, as well as ASR” (epa.gov). As mentioned before, close to 80 percent of vehicle materials are recycled, but the remaining 20 percent of the vehicle that cannot be recycled is called the Auto Shredder Residue (ASR). And according again to the EPA, ASR includes plastics, rubber, wood, paper, fabric, glass, sand, dirt, and ferrous (containing iron) and nonferrous metal pieces. After the shredding process, all of the ASR is sent to the landfill, where about “five million tons of ASR are disposed of in landfills each year” (epa.gov). Earth911 also adds that for each ton of metal recovered by a shredding facility, roughly 500 pounds of shredder residue are produced, and about 4.5 million tons per year in the U.S. are not presently being recycled. The last stage of the automotive disposal process, is resource recovery, where the iron and steel salvaged will be sent to end markets or steel mills where it is recycled to make new steel. This process of reusing the steel is called the BOF (basic oxygen furnace) process, which uses about 25 to 35 percent old steel to make new steel. While, it is difficult to estimate the how much of the ASR and other automobile waste is solely from Toyota Prius’, we can conclude that they will contribute just as much as a conventional vehicle since this process for automobile disposal is fairly constant amongst all vehicles.

     While the Toyota Prius advocates itself as a green, eco-friendly vehicle, the research shows that the only significant difference compared to a conventional vehicle is that a Prius will emit about 33-37% less greenhouse gas emissions. And while this is an achievement in reducing tailpipe emissions, it does not outweigh the environmental effects caused by the extracting and refining of raw materials, the transportation of the products, the emissions caused by the unique nickel-metal hydride battery, or its end-of-life disposal. The Toyota Prius seems to only improve one aspect of conventional internal combustion engine vehicles, and for the most part remains just as environmentally harmful as any traditional vehicle. The Toyota Prius advocates itself as an environmentally friendly car to the consumer by pushing the idea of using less gas and consequently emitting fewer greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. But what the consumers fail to realize, and what the companies fail to acknowledge and make known, is the amount of energy used, and wastes and emissions created during the entire lifecycle of the product.

Works Cited

"Automotive Parts, Common Wastes & Materials." EPA. Environmental Protection Agency, n.d. Web. 12 Mar. 2013.

Bettez, Majeau. "Green Car Congress: Life Cycle Analysis of Three Battery Chemistries for PHEVs and BEVs; Environmental Impacts Higher than Expected." Green Car Congress: Life Cycle Analysis of Three Battery Chemistries for PHEVs and BEVs; Environmental Impacts Higher than Expected. Bio Age Group, 11 Apr. 2011. Web. 12 Mar. 2013.

"Health." EPA. Environmental Protection Agency, 12 July 2011. Web. 12 Mar. 2013.

"How Car Bodies Are Recycled." Earth911com RSS. Infinity Resources Holding Company, n.d. Web. 12 Mar. 2013.

Jones, Kimberly A. The Environmental and Human Health Impact of the Hybrid-Electric

Vehicle Lifecycle: Emissions From the Tailpipe and the Nickel Metal-Hydride

Battery. Thesis. University of British Columbia, 2007. N.p.: n.p., n.d. Print.

Lave, Lester, Heather MacLean, Chris Hendrickson, and Rebecca Lankey. "Life-Cycle Analysis of Alternative Automobile Fuel/Propulsion Technologies." Environmental Science & Technology. ACS Publications, 4 Aug. 2000. Web. 23 Feb. 2013.

Samaras, Constantine and Kyle Meisterling. “Life Cycle Assessment of Greenhouse Gas  Emissions form Plug-In Hybrid Vehicles: Implications for Policy” Environmental Science & Technology. ACS Publications, 5 Apr. 2008. Web. 23 Feb. 2013

"Toyota, Three Partner Firms Start Joint Battery-to-battery Recycling." Toyota, ThreePartner Firms Start Joint Battery-to-battery Recycling. Noria Corporation, n.d. Web. 12 Mar. 2013.